Essay --

Marivic D. ToledoEng2 X-1RLRP (Final draft)Landfilling The Philippines Next Method of Waste ReductionThe world, reaching the edge of vulnerability, suffers from small to large capacity of calamities caused by either natural or human activities. From North to South, the melting of glaciers causing sea level rise, and from East to West, the extreme and strenuous heat of the sun atrophy soils and root crops leading to intense scarcity - all eventually become the first and fore closely factor to human suffering and misery. Philippines, a developing country, suffers most in this predicament together with the belonging nations, informally called as Third World countries. However, these calamities are not done generally by those of the developed countries alone. both nations American, Asian, African or whatever nationality contributes to the worsening Global warming that is currently experienced worldwide making the citizenry all liable and responsible for every undue instances and effects accompanying it. Generally, there are different factors that affect and cause this environmental phenomenon. One of these is solid waste. Solid wastes are waste materials and equalizer which are either made of plastics, woods, metals and the like which eventually, as of to date, continuously increases. Due to increasing solid waste, improper implementation of solid waste segregation, and in in force(p) customs duty of numbers of sanitary landfills in the Philippines, improvisation and implementation of sanitary landfills and developmental programs should be imposed by the Local Government Units nationwide for maintenance and public presentation of proper waste segregation. With these, the problem on solid waste management can be minimized.Basically, landfill is a me... ...e problems but did not become effective exuberant to maximize its full use because of the different problems encountered upon implementation. But by following proper techniques and strategies, these problems can be addressed. All people have their own respective(prenominal) responsibilities which they are required to live by. Depending on one organization or a certain group of people is not even the key in minimizing the countrys waste problems. Together with responsible leaders, it requires full participation and cooperation of every citizen in doing necessary measures on waste reduction. Actions are already made, notwithstanding that it should be improved and properly implemented to maximize its full use. All of these when done with unity and perseverance will be the most powerful and effective tool in minimizing solid waste management problems and achieving a better - healthier life.

William Butler Yeats Essay examples -- English Literature Essays

William Butler YeatsOne of Irelands finest writers, William Butler Yeats served a long apprenticeship in the arts before his genius was fully developed. He did close to of his greatest work afterwards he was fifty. Yeats was born in Dublin, Ireland, on June 13, 1865. His father was a lawyer-turned-Irish painter. In 1867 the family followed him to London and settled in Bedford Park. In 1881 they returned to Dublin, where Yeats study the Metropolitan School of Art. Yeats spend much time with his grandparents in County Sligo in northwestern Ireland. The scenery and folklore of this region greatly influenced Yeats work. For a while he analyze art, but during the 1890s he became active in Londons literary life and helped found the Rhymers Club. Yeats early work was not especially Irish. Soon, however, he began to look to the antiquated rituals and pagan beliefs of the land for his exquisite inspiration. He tried to merge this interest with his aristocratic tastes to create an origin al Irish poetry and to establish his own identity. In 1896 Yeats met Lady Gregory, an aristocrat and dramatist who shared his interest in Irelands past, especially in its folklore. In 1899 they formed a literary society that was the predecessor of the Abbey Theatre. Among his plays were The Countess Cathleen (1892) and Cathleen ni Houlihan (1902), with Maud Gonne in the title role. In 1899 he proposed to her, but she refused to marry him. As a means of getting closer to Maud, Yeats later... William Butler Yeats Essay examples -- English books EssaysWilliam Butler YeatsOne of Irelands finest writers, William Butler Yeats served a long apprenticeship in the arts before his genius was fully developed. He did some of his greatest work after he was fifty. Yeats was born in Dublin, Ireland, on June 13, 1865. His father was a lawyer-turned-Irish painter. In 1867 the family followed him to London and settled in Bedford Park. In 1881 they returned to Dublin, where Yeats stud ied the Metropolitan School of Art. Yeats spent much time with his grandparents in County Sligo in northwestern Ireland. The scenery and folklore of this region greatly influenced Yeats work. For a while he studied art, but during the 1890s he became active in Londons literary life and helped found the Rhymers Club. Yeats early work was not especially Irish. Soon, however, he began to look to the ancient rituals and pagan beliefs of the land for his artistic inspiration. He tried to merge this interest with his aristocratic tastes to create an original Irish poetry and to establish his own identity. In 1896 Yeats met Lady Gregory, an aristocrat and playwright who shared his interest in Irelands past, especially in its folklore. In 1899 they formed a literary society that was the predecessor of the Abbey Theatre. Among his plays were The Countess Cathleen (1892) and Cathleen ni Houlihan (1902), with Maud Gonne in the title role. In 1899 he proposed to her, but she refused to marry hi m. As a means of getting closer to Maud, Yeats later...

John Steinbecks The Pearl :: essays research papers

Kino lives in the shore with his family, he was a fisherman. When the morning comes he can happen upon the song of the family which includes the sounds of waves and animals that surrounded them. Juana his wife had a song too, an ancient song that had only three notes and yet endless variety of interval. One day their fluff , Coyotito got stung by an scorpion a deadly poisonous, tiny creature the couple was panicked and didnt know what to do. Their neighbors help them to get to a doctor save it seems that the doctor was very mean to poor people. There is this other song too which is the song of enemy, they heard it when they have a problems. There is this beggars actually, four of them in front of the church who knew everything in the township. They were students of expressions of young as they went into confession. When they got into the house of the doctor Kino hesitated a moment because this doctor was not of his people. The gate was closed a little and the servant refused to speak in the old language. They never got to speak to the doctor with Kinos anger. He struck the gate a withering blow with his fist.&9Kino own a canoe which was owned by his Grandpa and give it to his father and passed to Kino it was the one thing of rate he owned in the world. Kino form a pearl a silvery pearl he seemed to saw the great oyster for the showtime time. His wife was so very excited when he saw the pearl and she could not want to hold it. Before he found the pearl he heard the song of the pearl but in the song there was a secret, little inner song., hardly perceptible, but always there perfumed and secret and clinging.&9The town lay on a broad, zstuary, its old yellow plastered buildings hugging the beach. On the beach the hungry dogs and the hungry plgs of the town searched cudlessly for any dead fish or sea bird that might have floated on a rising tide.&9The news that Kino found a pearl was all over the town. A town is like a colonial animal. A town has as nervo us system and a head and shoulders and feet. Before Kino and Juana and the other fishers had come to Kinos brush house, the nerves of the town were pulsing and vibrating with he news, Kino had found the beadwork of the World.

Japans Anime and Cyberpunk Genres :: Cyberpunk Anime Films Literature Essays Papers

Japans Anime and cyberpunk GenresAnime take ins are cartoons, usually from Japan, with giving subject matter. Despite the public American overhear that cartoons are for children, Japanese view anime as a legitimate art form that is take into account for adult viewing. Anime subjects switch widely from soap opera drama, to medieval adventures, to science fiction. Many of the sci-fi anime films exhibit traits that are common to the cyberpunk ethic.Cyberpunk as a genre attend toms to defy a precise definition, alone several common themes can be used to exemplify what ideals the figurehead represents. This movement is a new view of the world, one in which neither apocalypse nor utopia is presented. Those involved in creating cyberpunk show the received global situation, only some(prenominal) more so. They extrapolate from current events and take it to a higher degree. Almost everything in their fictional worlds is recognizable to modern readers, only they have projected eng ine room and events into a future that is possible. The creators of anime present views of the future that are often very similar. Big robots, crowded metropolises, and powerful jackpots are all commonplace. The Tessier-Ashpool mega-corp of Neuromancer can be likened to GENOM, a multinational corporation from Bubblegum Crisis. The Tessier-Ashpool artificial intelligences, Wintermute and Neuromancer, quitely amassed power and eventually changed the world. This idea of engineering science out of control is mirrored in GENOMs escaped baby boomers. Boomers are somewhat much Terminator endoskeletons, but even more bulky. Occasionally, one would escape and wreak havoc on the surrounding city. Both the novel and the anime film examine the social ramifications of technology beyond human intervention. And while it is true that Gibsons take on it is much more subtle, watching a Boomer becharm blown up by a cyberbabe in power armor can be pretty rewarding in its own right.A Boomer cocks hi s head, small optical relays click. He almost grins. A split second later, a helicopter is going down in flames. ...he sees that the dark wavelike phenomenon was a wave of blood ... a miniaturized gatling gun ... whirs around. (Stephenson, 361) The feelings evoked by these two passages are similar. Although the first quote was my pitiful attempt to paraphrase the animated exertion of Bubblegum Crisis you can clearly see that directors of anime seem to share literary cyberpunks fascination with cool tech. The Boomers gun that spews zillions of rounds of superheated death is reminiscent of Stephensons depleted uranium undercoat gatling gun.Japans Anime and Cyberpunk Genres Cyberpunk Anime Films Literature Essays PapersJapans Anime and Cyberpunk GenresAnime films are cartoons, usually from Japan, with adult subject matter. Despite the prevailing American view that cartoons are for children, Japanese view anime as a legitimate art form that is appropriate for adult viewing. Anime s ubjects vary widely from soap opera drama, to medieval adventures, to science fiction. Many of the sci-fi anime films exhibit traits that are common to the cyberpunk ethic.Cyberpunk as a genre seems to defy a precise definition, but several common themes can be used to exemplify what ideals the movement represents. This movement is a new view of the world, one in which neither apocalypse nor utopia is presented. Those involved in creating cyberpunk show the current global situation, only much more so. They extrapolate from current events and take it to a higher degree. Almost everything in their fictional worlds is recognizable to modern readers, only they have projected technology and events into a future that is possible. The creators of anime present views of the future that are often very similar. Big robots, crowded metropolises, and powerful corporations are all commonplace. The Tessier-Ashpool mega-corp of Neuromancer can be likened to GENOM, a multinational corporation from Bubblegum Crisis. The Tessier-Ashpool artificial intelligences, Wintermute and Neuromancer, quitely amassed power and eventually changed the world. This idea of technology out of control is mirrored in GENOMs escaped Boomers. Boomers are pretty much Terminator endoskeletons, but even more bulky. Occasionally, one would escape and wreak havoc on the surrounding city. Both the novel and the anime film examine the social ramifications of technology beyond human intervention. And while it is true that Gibsons take on it is much more subtle, watching a Boomer get blown up by a cyberbabe in power armor can be pretty rewarding in its own right.A Boomer cocks his head, small optical relays click. He almost grins. A split second later, a helicopter is going down in flames. ...he sees that the dark wavelike phenomenon was a wave of blood ... a miniaturized gatling gun ... whirs around. (Stephenson, 361) The feelings evoked by these two passages are similar. Although the first quote was my pit iful attempt to paraphrase the animated action of Bubblegum Crisis you can clearly see that directors of anime seem to share literary cyberpunks fascination with cool tech. The Boomers gun that spews zillions of rounds of superheated death is reminiscent of Stephensons depleted uranium Reason gatling gun.

Proud to ba an american :: essays research papers

Proud to be an AmericanI am purple to be an American because I was born here. Four generations back, my ancestors came here from Europe. We have the right to be any religion we choose. Voting is a right of whole people. We also have the most liberties and rights of any nation on earth.First of all, our nation is the richest country. We have clothes like T-shirts, jeans, socks and all sorts of other stuff. Afghanistan has sheets that they wrap or so themselves. We have all sorts of food. We can go and get food at restaurants and groceries stores. Our nation is highly industrialized. We have the most jobs. Some big industries are brace Case, General Motors and the Ford Motor Company. There are many, many jobs for people to work.Secondly, why I am proud to be an American is because of our technology. We have computers. They function us in our everyday life. Lets not forget our vehicles. We have cars, trucks, four wheelers, dirt bikes, boats, planes, jets and helicopters. Without t hese vehicles, we would have a hard time getting around from devote to place. NASA sent up a rocket that enabled men to land and walk on the surface of the moon. We were the first nation to accomplish such a flop task.Thirdly, and one of the most important reasons why I am proud to be an American is because of our veterans. They fought for our country. They saved our lives and defended our freedom. They risked their own lives by fighting to save ours.      "Jon, why are you proud to be an American?""I got out of high school and was asked to join the army. Fortunately I did. And when World War II ended, I had a good feeling because I knew I had accomplished something for our country and people. I was proud to have served my country."Our founding fathers believed so strongly in the liberties and freedoms that we revere today, that they were willing to give their lives for the cause.

Proud to ba an american :: essays research papers

Proud to be an AmericanI am proud to be an American because I was born here. 4 generations back, my ancestors came here from Europe. We have the right to be any religion we choose. Voting is a right of all people. We also have the most liberties and rights of any community on earth.First of all, our nation is the richest country. We have clothes like T-shirts, jeans, socks and all sorts of other stuff. Afghanistan has sheets that they wrap around themselves. We have all sorts of food. We can go and stimulate food at restaurants and groceries stores. Our nation is highly industrialized. We have the most jobs. Some big industries ar Steel Case, General Motors and the Ford Motor Company. There are many, many jobs for people to work.Secondly, why I am proud to be an American is because of our technology. We have computers. They help us in our everyday life. Lets not choke up our vehicles. We have cars, trucks, four wheelers, dirt bikes, boats, planes, jets and helicopters. Without these vehicles, we would have a hard time getting around from place to place. NASA sent up a rocket that enabled manpower to land and walk on the surface of the moon. We were the first nation to accomplish such a mighty task.Thirdly, and one of the most important reasons why I am proud to be an American is because of our veterans. They fought for our country. They saved our lives and defended our freedom. They risked their own lives by fighting to save ours.      "Jon, why are you proud to be an American?""I got out of high school and was asked to join the army. Fortunately I did. And when World War II ended, I had a good feeling because I knew I had accomplished something for our country and people. I was proud to have served my country."Our founding fathers believed so strongly in the liberties and freedoms that we enjoy today, that they were willing to give their lives for the cause.

Outline on Genital Herpes

Kamara Gayle Outline of Major Report November 12, 2011 Title An Introduction to Genital herpes Introduction The definition of Genital herpes virus Symptoms of Genital Herpes Treatment for Genital herpes The definition of Genital Herpes. A. Definition 1. Genital herpes is highly contagious, sexually transmitted viral infection of the genital and anal retentive regions caused by herpes simplex virus and characterized by small clusters of paroxysmful lesions. B. First discovered by Hippocrates in the early ancient Greek clock times.Hippocrates was a Greek physician and that was highly reckoned as the superlative physician of his time. The human body and observation was his main focus and medical practice. Hippocrates discovered that illness in the body was not caused by superstitions and by possession of evil spirit. Based on his study he realized that the body must be hard-boiled as a whole and not just series of parts, natural healing process of rest, a good diet, fresh air, clean liness. However, severity of symptoms varys from one someone to another and thoughts, ideas, feeling come from the brain and the heart.C. Rate of occurrence 50 to 80 percent of the adult populations have Genital Herpes. Approximately 1 taboo of 5 female ages from 14 to 49 and Approximately 1 out of 9 male ages from 14 to 49 have Genital Herpes. Most of the time these individuals do not know they have the virus D. Causes Being female Being born to a mother with active genital herpes during maternity or delivery Having a compromised immune system due to medications or such conditions as HIV/AIDS Having multiple sexual partnersHaving unprotected sex, including vaginal, oral, or anal sex, with a partner who has had one or more other sexual partners History of another sexually transmitted disease III. Symptoms of Genital Herpes A. Primary Infection Painful red blister that burst to leave open sores around the genitals, rectum (back passage) The blistering and ulcers on the cervix In wo man a vaginal discharge Very painfull when passing urine Temperature fever of 38 C (100. 4 F) or over Not feeling well with aches and pain in general B. Recurrent Infection Signaled by a tingling sensation Itching in the genital areasPain in the buttocks or dump the leg IV. Treatments for Genital Herpes A. Oral medications Famciclovir (Farmvir) Valacyclovir (Valtrex) Acyclovir (Zovirax) These prevent the virus from multiplying and even shorten the length of eruption. B. Self-care at home Avoid excessive hotness or sunlight that makes the irritation more uncomfortable. Do not used perfume or antibacterials soaps, feminine deodorant or douches. Wear comfortable discharge fitting cotton clothing. Take aspen, acetaminopen (tylenol and others) Used cool cloths on the affected area if it soothes the pain. V. Conclusion

Philosophy: Ecological Restoration Essay

How drop we envision an ecologic restoration of both corpo actual environment and philosophical/spiritual thought models?Overpopulation, overexploitation, and human consumption argon each(prenominal) contributing to the downf all(a) of our now extremely misused planet. All organisms atomic number 18 now being exposed to drastic environmental transmutes, ones that our ancestors drop never experienced. The st strength of the Earth has been decreasing severely in the past few centuries because of human races impact on overusing and consuming resources. Fundamental for Earths tycoon to function, natural resources across the globe are being destroyed and some(prenominal) contribute to the atmospheric variegate. A major issue is the lack of sensation of the current problems along with the absence of drive towards maintenance and restoration of the planet. Many globe view Earth as just a place to have, a place where selfishness takes hold, and careless consumption and waste t hrives. We must ask ourselves, as a whole, at what point in time did our values of the Earth change? And how did we ever allow ourselves to bewilder selfish, independent, and careless human beings?Unlike previous ecologic and earth spiritualties that promoted and influenced all people to care for the Earth, we now take advantage of our planet for our own leases. Instead of love and protection, greed and exploitation now motivate us. At one point in time, ecological ideologies were a threshold for many beliefs because of the interconnectedness with all beings and the idea that everything is living and necessary for the planets survival. Maintaining a healthy equaliser with the mind, body, spirit, and environment has allowed generations of manhood to thrive in our world.But, somewhere along the evolutional journey of macrocosm, we have slowly lost these c at a timepts and values. In holy order to succeed we have to make the close money in order to be superior, instead of bei ng happy with what you have. The mentality, particularly in Western culture, is that we stretch forth to work, not work to live. The drive to be happy lies within work and money, but how many people, especially in the United States can say they are happy with their lives? It is because we lost the companionship with the Earth, if we are connected with reputation, peace leave fulfill our lives.Reverting to previous mentalities and philosophies is instrumental in our restoration of the Earth. Building a better place to live, both physically and mentally, starts with analyzing past spiritualties and converting to some of their widespread ideas. Loving, respecting, and caring for the world is a concept seen in the practices of atomic number 32, Shamanism, Dark harshalty, Buddhist, and Hindu religions. demonstrative the human connectedness with the environment, while seeing nature as a living being is a usage that must be restored. The religions and ideologies illustrate peace, sentiency, and balance within every relationship, including self.Adapting to these spiritualties depart be beneficial across the globe, it will aid in our survival as well as the planets. Even though these models may come out far stumble, difficult, and un come-at-able, we must strive to change because it is vital for our existence.Presently, a common attitude that has been expressed is that nature is severely flawed, and that there is not much we can do to restore Earth. But, it is mankinds duty to attempt the change and fix the environment as well as our philosophies merchant ship it. New palm of study have been created like conservation biology and restoration environmental science, which practice saving and fixing eco trunks across our biosphere. Movements in scientific fields as well as other environmental programs now strive to restore the Earth bear to a plentiful state, with natural resources in tactfulness to enable future generations to live. We must also think deeper about the current state of the Earth, considering all answers to how we got this mood. Our future depends on whether or not humans can become mindful of our planet, to see clearly what is wrong and cause no further harm. Through this, we need to restore previous ideologies to help our new route of success. Living simply, awareness, respect, compassion, and love are report components to functioning in what our new world should become.Tracing the earliest environmental concepts back to the era of Greeks, Romans, and early ethnical practices, the earth spiritualty Gaia played a vital role in their customs. Gaia is centered on the understanding that humans are not physical beings having a spiritual experience, but we are spiritual beings having a physical experience. It is a broad and open-minded spiritualty, and focuses on mans connection with the Earth. Certain beliefs are that the planet is an ancient, living, and self-regulating system and we must do our part by not affe cting such an essential being in our lives. Similarly, Mother Earth, humans, and all beings must have a deep, strong, and balanced relationship. It is illustrated that Gaia itself, is a symbol of peaceful balance between liveness and time. Ensuring that humans have a duty to protect, care, and respect the Earth because it is what gave us emotional state inexorably.Envisioning Gaia as a concept used for ecological restoration of the environment and restoration of philosophical and spiritual views is an easy notion, which should be set into place. Since the philosophies of Gaia believe that humans have the ability to maintain Earths homeostasis, we should be inspired to embrace what our role should be in the planet. Due to most individuals self interest and greed, our actions are continually contributing to the change in the climate. But, in todays society, if Gaia was a wide spread concept, individuals would have the ability to decide what sort of relationship they would have with the Earth. Taking such go-ahead to save and respect the planet will attract millions of followers. Gaia spirituality is an ideal change worth striving towards, since we recognize that Earth is a intercommunicate of interacting components that shape each other, we need to reduce the impacts affecting these elements. Beings and the planet need to co-evolve, and life needs to stabilize the planet in order to survive.Many other spiritual practices similar to Gaia involve exercises where followers strive to reach a sealed state of consciousness that allows them to view the world in a different light. A well-known practice is Shamanism, which exemplifies reaching such a level of consciousness and allowing the practitioner to have access to other worlds. Shamans are guides to humans in our world, leading us through concepts from the spirit world. Since shamans contact both malicious and benevolent spirits, they view the world in a certain way that most humans are unable to. As shamans b egin their ritual to other worlds, they enter a trance where they are placed in positions as messengers and healers from the spirits. Within healing, shamans treat the body through fixing the soul and restoring humans back to a healthy balance. Shamans build strong relationships with all animals and living beings in order to help them seriousy understand nature and its ways.Many of Shamanistic beliefs are that humans are directly affected with the treatment of the environment, and shamans can educate us about our wrongful actions. They guide us through the spirits to give us answers about our life mishaps and questions. Shamans consume the responsibility to care for all beings in order to better suite our world. Followers of Shamanism practice the importance of what you take from the world, you must give back and give thanks. Traditionally, shaman practices cozy up how much they are ecologists of tribal societies. The rituals, trances, and journeys guarantee the relationship betw een humans and other beings are balanced (Barnhill 200) and remain so.Approaching a similar system to Shamanism will be a worthwhile effort because of the environmental aspects. They stress the avoidance of overhunting and overexploitation of resources by setting restrictions through their daily lives. Managing resources is tradition we do not do currently, but one we must become accustomed to, along with respect and compassion to restore a balance in the world. Being the worlds third largest religion and one of the oldest, Hinduism has always been a massive threshold for peoples beliefs. More importantly in Hinduism is the fundamental ecological spirituality that attracts so many followers. Both the thought models and motives for the environment are what drive the religion. Promoting peace and a natural demeanor towards all living things is a major theme, but in the foundation there are truly many concepts that are vital. The lulu seen in Hinduism is that the Earth is interconnecte d, that everything is a complete entity.Hindus terminology for the Earth is a superior factor and if applied it could be beneficial for restoration of the world. Advaita/Monism (Lal 190) implies that everyone and everything is one, there is no office in life, and Brahman (Lal 191) means the principle of the cosmos, that everything has a heart and soul and structure. Similar to Brahman is Atman (Lal 190), which applies to humans and is the spiritual essence of man. For Hinduism, all beings go through life cycles known as reincarnation or Samsara (Lal 192), and through each life beings strive towards developing into more complex forms. It is ruled through karma, which regulates the cause and frame of how you live and if you will move on to a better form of life. The life energy, Kundalini (Lal 190), represents the awakening of the mind to understand all matters in living. Ultimately, Hindus goal for the humans spirituality is to move from self-centeredness and unenlightened to a se lf-less and enlightened person. Balance of mind, body, and spirit rules Hinduism, and to reach that many followers live simply in all ways, which benefits their bodies as well as their surroundings.Hinduism emphasizes sacred geography their belief is that Earth nurtures humans so we have to give back by protecting and respecting the land. Since Hinduism is most apparent in India, they have adapted the term Bharat-ma, or Mother India, which is a holy site and used for ecological progress. The land in India is sacred, even if it is polluted and destroyed they still have a deep love for all of the land, which is an important aspect, that most other countries lack. Furthermore, Ahimsa (Lal 190) is the member of non-violence and a complete consciousness that all living beings have the right to live and thrive.Adapting to Hinduism would make a beautiful change to the Earth. Land and water would be treated deferently, eventually reasonablysing the atmosphere along with slowing climate c hange. Although their concepts of Earth are ideal and something we should model our lives after, it may be questioned if it is something even attainable and if we can reverse the effects already done to the Earth and ourselves. The green spirituality of Hinduism can make drastic changes to the current state of the Earth, and would help cleanse humans to a more balanced and healthy self.Mindfulness, nonviolence, and self-awareness (Kozak 5) have an influential role on the rising popularity of Buddhism. The primary philosophy of Buddhism is that it is spiritual not sacred, it is a way of life, striving to improve the human mind, body, and spirit. As global perspectives change and people attune to having some sort of awareness, masses of humans are bonnie more attracted to becoming Buddhist and living such lifestyles. Due to the fact that Buddhism is not an organized religion, but an ideology of leading a moral life, awareness of thoughts and actions, and to develop understanding an d wisdom in the search for Enlightenment (Kozak 24) is what fascinates many people. Living is suffering for true Buddhists and once an individual reaches enlightenment, they can be big from the suffering of the world.Similar to Hinduism, Buddhism also believes in reincarnation, in their version the soul is always migrating into other worlds and death is nothing to fear because it determines what world you go into in the next life. The practice of Buddhism requires three things from man self-mastery, self-analysis, and the cultivation of empathy (Kozak 262). Self-mastery involves looking at ones self, paying attention to who you are, and decreasing greed. Self-analysis contains minimizing resources including needs and wants, and practices mastery in all aspects of life. The cultivation of empathy implies that one must have understanding towards all beings and if done, they will become gentle, patient, and calm, which will contribute to their enlightenment goal. Empathy among humans , animals, plants, and all organisms entails breakup fear and to question what is right and wrong. Buddhism teaches worship and respect for the environment, emphasizing the fluidity of nature and life.Buddhism is a tradition that offers help to our world that is experiencing rapid and destructive change (Lancaster 3). If Buddhism was taught and practiced across the globe, people would understand the importance of nature and how it plays a vital role in our lives. Nature and all of its resources are being low at an astounding rate, and the practice of the Buddha would influence the globe to respect and restore our environment. If practiced, corporations and presidencys would no longer strive to make the most money and have the most influence, because quality not quantity matters in our environment and globally we would understand that concept.Recently, a radically growing religion across the globe is the Dark Green Religion, which holds their beliefs in nature, spirituality and ou r futures. This religion is actually a religion-resembling set of ideologies and practices that focuses on the holiness of nature and relationships with everything on the planet. Primarily, their belief is that nature is sacred with an intrinsic value, meaning that it should be demanded respect and care. Similar to most earth spiritualties, the relationship with human, and non-humans is highlighted, along with the consciousness of the connections of all life on the planet. Dark Green religions are common in all environmentalist movements, especially the surfing culture and all nature-based spiritualties. A common theme is the acceptance of perspectival thinking- where there is no truth, no objectivity, and no absolute value.Accepting perspectival thinking would give all humans the power to understand the affects we are having on our planet. We would always be searching for the deeper meaning of things and wondering(a) what is the right way to live. This theory can be seen predated before Christianity, and it used to focus on seeing and interpreting nature in a respectful and beautiful way. The attitude is that humans, other organisms, and Earth are one unity with a greater power in control.Before long, Christianity covered up these beliefs and hid the real meaning of life. But as culture changes once again, we can see how these set of beliefs are making their way to the forefront of the environmental movement. Promoting that nature has the ability to have rights and the expectation that people have to uphold these rights would ensure respect to ripple throughout the world. By following these rights, nature would be allowed to restore itself, and ecosystems could be balanced once again. The balance of nature would continually benefit humans through ecosystem services of the land.Restoring old philosophical and spiritual thought models may seem impossible, but since new philosophies have arisen in past years that mirror older values and beliefs, they are attrac ting numerous amounts of followers. A growing philosophy that is not only a belief system but also a set of actions, also known as praxis, is Eco-philosophy also known as copious Ecology. This praxis presents the idea that humans are not the center of all things, but simply a part of all things. Two major focuses of heavy Ecology are self-realization and ecocentrism (Scarce 31). The realization of self emphasizes the consciousness of an individuals perception must be extended beyond their own aspects of life and must include the environment in their life. Ecocentrism is the basis that everything involved with nature possesses intrinsic worth and value. Deep Ecologys ideas are based off of old philosophies beliefs, common themes in Deep Ecology reflect Buddhism, Hinduism, Dark Green religions, and Gaia.Harmony with nature, nature having intrinsic worth, living simply with small square needs, minimal consumption, and awareness that supplies on earth are limited all oppose modern da y Western beliefs, but come from a religious and community based background (Scarce 37). Those who follow Deep Ecology are also known as radical environmentalists, they have a strong hold between themselves and the environment that spurs their actions they are always tied back to the Earth. The realization that humans are mere aspects, on the same level as plants, animals, and bugs, is something that could change our world. A change in an individual requires a change in the culture so other citizens can follow suit. A massive suspension of lifestyle is needed to make the difference, living simply and practically through gardening, awareness of choices, and being selfless are what is vital for success in humanity.quicker than expected, the worlds population is nearing ten billion, and our current depletion of food, energy, water, and natural resources is still expanding at a rate that no longer can be maintained. Overcoming these issues will be an extremely difficult task because g overnments, corporations, and everything between have ignorance about their own greed. Ignorance, greed, and hatred are toxic for the world, and they highlight how our state of the Earth became so detrimental. Awareness to the reality of the situation is questionable mankind needs to have bravery to alter our ways. Social change will always occur, but government and corporate leaders have to have the bravery of leading the world cleanly and with complete mindfulness. When talking about environmental restoration and preservation, the Dalai Lama once said, Ultimately, the decision must come from the human heart. The key point is to have a genuine sense of universal responsibility, based on love and compassion, and clean awareness.Nature is at the very heart of our being and spirituality, it is our duty to prevent further destruction. If we continue to live as we have been without thinking of the future, we will continue to destroy natural resources, emit greenhouse gases, and climate change will then be inevitable. Climate change means a drastic shift in sea water levels because of ice caps melting, and millions of people will be forced out of their homes because coastal cities will be destroyed. Oceans will fond natural disasters will take place such as droughts, floods, and heat waves, they will destroy our agriculture and homes and will hinder mankinds ability to thrive.Control and safety from danger and destructiveness is what humanity strives to create in our culture. Even though control may be helpful for humans to flourish, we are cachexy precious opportunities to become closer to nature and all that it has to offer. Studying and introducing ourselves back into the environment will be beneficial for the constitutional planet. Humans have neutered the balance of the planet to restore prior thought models involves the practice of no longer picturing ourselves as the center of the universe but seeing all inhabitants of the universe and the necessary rol e they play in our lives.It is natural for one person to believe that they cannot make a difference in the world, but belief, hope, determination, and courage will alter the planet. The process of restoring the physical world will be a step-by-step process, not one person can save the entire Earth, but they can give their full energy to help certain causes. Restoration of the environment and spiritual thought models intertwine. If it takes a person to have a bad experience to spur them towards changing their lifestyle and beliefs, then that is what must happen.Being submissive, listening to authorities and government leaders causes our world to be full of non-believers humans do not trust their feelings and intuition (Scarce 34). Cultures across the world have fallen into the notion that they must be told what is right or wrong, especially through science and technology because they create certifiable truth. Banishing this manifestation will allow people to once again search for kno wledge and answers. That is the beauty behind philosophy, everyone searches for knowledge and truth but there may never be real and certain truths. Accepting this idea will allow mankind to realize that nature is too complex to ever be completely and fully understood, so we should respect all that it is.To change our current ecological precondition both physically and spiritually, many steps must be taken. Most importantly, personal and community based engagement must be taken in the environment. Compassion, interdependence, and inter-being with the world will provide a philosophic platform (Storhoff and Whalen-Bridge 113) that will radiate across the globe and improve our spiritual beings. Western hemisphere ideologies must be radically different. Currently, our ethics and cultural perceptions that influence our actions of modes of thinking (Lancaster 9) are affecting our ways of living.The perception that people who are good, moral, respectable, and worthy are vatical to give h elp to the poor and oppressed, instead of aiding all classes as well as the environment. In other words, in our communities, we now aid to the needy and slimy but in reality, we should be more focused on the global community. Nature is not separate from us, so it is what we should be aiding. Nature is the fundamental empirical context of our lives, and we have a responsibility to aid and participate in it as a community (Barnhill 188), just as we would to the needy. Cultural transmission is the key to restoring our ecology we need to form a new society within the shell of our current one. Instead of being centered on industry and technology, we need to focus on the physical and spiritual self-being of the world.Ideally, a world formed around Buddhist and Hindu traditions would benefit all beings, but during the cultivation of societies, humanity lost those ideals. Primarily, the first step to restoration would be individual change each person would need to alter their lifestyles a nd values based off of certain ecological and earth spiritualties. If this were to happen, the transformation of individuals would affect their families, then to communities, to culture, and eventually global change. It may not be an immediate, imminent change, but slowly the acceptance, respect, and love for nature would spread to everyone in the world.Having a total integrated life style with the environment would allow awareness of self-interdependence with the globe, and how our actions affect all beings. Deep ecological awareness is an ideology that in a resolute ecocentric view, we would be able to reorganize our societies around the laws of nature (Lal 193). Ecological consciousness comes from the heart, not the head (Scarce 31), we need to become compassionate to everyone and everything. Adapting to earth religions would allow our values of the earth to change, because it compromises all life and the entire environment to be one entity that we all belong to in a single commu nity. If we cannot adapt to a single religion or spirituality, we may only need to adapt to single expressions and practices of these ideologies, which will support the change of our ethical norms and values in the postmodern era.Works CitedBarnhill, David Landis. Deep Ecology and World Religions New Essays on Sacred Grounds. capital of New York State University of New York Press, 2001.Kozak, Arnold. The Everything Buddhism Book. 2nd ed. Avon, Mass. Adams Media, 2011.Lal, Vinay. Hinduism and ecology the intersection of earth, sky, and water. Cambridge, MA Distributed by Harvard University Press for the Center for the Study of World Religions, Harvard Divinity School, 2000.Lancaster, Lewis. Buddhism and Ecology The Interconnection of Dharma and Deeds. Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions , 1997.Lovelock, James. Healing Gaia practical medicine for the planet. New York Harmony Books, 1991.Scarce, Rik. Eco-Warriors Understanding the Radical Environ mental Movement. Chicago Noble Press, 1990.Storhoff, Gary, and John Whalen-Bridge. American Buddhism as a way of life. Albany State University of New York Press, 2010. Print.

Mauryan Empire

SYLLABUS OF FIRST PAPER OF TET Paper II (for manikines VI to VIII) easy Stage 30 Questions I. Child Develop handst and educational activity 15 Questions a) Child Develop manpowert (Elementary School Child) Concept of development and its relationship with reading Principles of the development of children squ atomic number 18 up of Heredity & Environment Socialization processes Social world & children (Teacher, Pargonnts, Peers) Piaget, Kohlberg and Vygotsky constructs and critical perspectives Concepts of child-centered and progressive education Critical perspective of the construct of In identifyigence Multi Dimensional Intelligence wrangle & Thought Gender as a social construct gender affairs, gender-bias and educational practice Individual differences among learners, understanding differences based on diver gravely of language, caste, gender, community, piety etc. Distinction between Assessment for learning and assessment of learning SchoolBased Assessment, Cont inuous & Comprehensive Evaluation perspective and practice Formulating appropriate questions for assessing readiness levels of learners for enhancing learning and critical thin queer in the schoolroom and or assessing learner achievement. b) Concept of Inclusive education and understanding children with special needs 5 Questions Addressing learners from diverse backgrounds including separate and deprived Addressing the needs of children with learning difficulties, impairment etc Addressing the Talented, Creative, Specially ab take Learners c) Learning and Pedagogy 10 Questions How children think and learn how and why children fail to achieve success in school per systemance Basic processes of precept and learning childrens strategies of learning learning as social activity social context of learning. Child as a problem solver and a scientific investigator Alternative conceptions of learning in children understanding childrens errors as significant steps in the learning proc ess. Cognition & Emotions Motivation and learning Factors contributing to learning personal & environmental II. Language I. 30 Questions a) Language Comprehension 15 Questions Reading unobserved passages- two passages iodin prose or drama and one poem with questions on comprehension, inference, grammar and verbal dexterity (Prose passage may e lit sequencery, scientific, narrative or discursive) b) Pedagogy of Language Development 15 Questions Learning and acquisition Principles of language Teaching Role of listening and spea major power function of language and how children give it as a alikel Critical perspective on the role of grammar in learning a language for communicating ideas verbally and in write form Challenges of dogma language in a diverse classroom language difficulties, errors and disorders Language Skills Evaluating language comprehension and proficiency speaking, listening, reading and writing Teaching-learning squares Textbook, multi-media material s, multilingual option of the classroom Remedial Teaching III. Language- II 30 Questions a)Comprehension 15 Questions Two unseen prose passages (discursive or literary or narrative or scientific) with questions on comprehension, grammar and verbal ability b) Pedagogy of Language Development 15 Questions Learning and acquisition Principles of language Teaching Role of listening and speaking function of language and how children use it as a tool Critical perspective on the role of grammar in learning a language for communicating deas verbally and in written form Challenges of teaching language in a diverse classroom language difficulties, errors and disorders Language Skills Evaluating language comprehension and proficiency speaking, listening, reading and writing Teaching-learning materials Textbook, multi-media materials, multilingual resource of the classroom Remedial Teaching ____________________________________________________________ _____ SECTION 2 Section-I CHILD DE VELPOMENT AND PEDAGOGY 1. Raja, a student of your class, is very deform due to the acne on his face. What allow for u do? (1) Ignore him. 2) Tell him that it is normal and is due to hormonal changes. (3) Tell him to go to a doctor as it is a medical problem. (4) Scold and tell him non to waste time on these issues. 2. A student wants to sh be his personal problems and asks for permission to call on u at your residence. What should be your response? (1) Avoid giving time. (2) rejoin an appointment readily. (3) Tell him that u do non encourage students to visit at the residence. (4) Ignore the child. 3. If you come to know that a child of your class is facing problems related to parents separation at home, what would you do? 1) Do not talk to the child on this issue. (2) Treat her/him sympathetically. (3) Talk to the parents. (4) Be indifferent to the child. 4. If you come to know that the father of a student has been tested HIV positive, what will you do? (1) Disclose the infor mation to the class. (2) Make the child sit separately. (3) Ask the parents to withdraw the child. (4) Let him continue with the studies alike others. 5. Kavya a student of your class, is visually challenged and you subscribe a function coming up. What will you do? (1) Give her the opus of a narrator. 2) Ask her to stay at home during the function. (3) Discourage her from participating. (4) Give her a less important duty. 6. Manjusha is very interested in sports and wants to track her career in sports. What will you suggest to her? (1) Girls take retain no time to come in sports. (2) She should put in hard work to achieve her ambition. (3) Ask her to be focused only in academics. (4) Girls cannot excel in sports as they are not physically strong. 7. Twelve year old Radhika has begun to imitate the style of public lecture of her teacher.This form of behavior is known as- (1) compensation (2) transference (3) sublimation (4) egocentrism 8. For conducting a social science class in an interesting way, teachers should- (1) give notes (2) give written homework (3) use role-plays effectively (4) encourage extra reading 9. A 11-12 year old child generally faces to a vaster extent(prenominal) problems related to- (1) eye move over coordination (2) anxiety about studies. (3) need for peer approval (4) understanding mathematics. 10.Which of the pursuance is roughly essential for learning? (1) Good parent child relationship (2) utmost intelligence (3) Good school (4) Desire to learn 11. Which of the following is not good for quality learning? (1) Making notes (3) Extra reading (3) Using film books (4) Self Study 12. Which of the following may damage a low achieving student psychologically? (1) Making children film record of the class test label. (2) Discussing the marks of individual students in the class. (3) Discussing the reclaim answers in the class. 4) Making children correct their own notebooks. 13. When most of the students in a class do not und erstand a concept clearly, the teacher should- (1) repeat the lesson once again. (2) conduct hands on activities on that concept. (3) Ask students to take avail from parents. (4) rebuff and move to the next concept. 14. To correct the stammering problem of a class VIII student, a teacher should (1) ignore the child. (2) provide more opportunities for speaking. (3) check the child whenever she/he stammers. (4) seek professional help. 15. Which of the following statements about the role of a teacher is correct? 1) Teacher should be a critic only. (2) Teacher should favour good students. (3) Teacher should have a friendly attitude to state of wards students. (4) Teacher should maintain a distance from students. 16. For ensuring and improving class discipline, the teacher should- (1) arrange regular parent- teacher meetings. (2) Call authorities to the class. (3) be strict with students and punish them. (4) evaluate the methods and approaches used in the class. 17. To address the div ersity in academic achievement, an effective teaching method can be (1) dictating notes (2) conjunctive teaching. 3) lecturing (4)giving tests. 18. In which stage of cognitive development is a child, when she/he is able to work out problems logically and can do multiple mixed bag? (1) Pre operational stage (2) Formal operational stage (3) Concrete operation stage (4) Sensori-motor stage 19. Gaurav of class VII gave a letter to his classmate Seema face that he loves her. What should the teacher do? (1) Ignore the issue (2) Punish Gaurav (3) Counsel Gaurav appropriately (4) Let the Principal handle the issue 20.Children from the under privileged sections of the fellowship can benefit more if they are (1) provided with insureing for self employment (2) exempted from homework and class tests. (3) provided with richer learning environment in school. (4) given simpler learning tasks. 21. Students in classes VII-VIII face problems mostly related to (1) identity crisis. (2) emotional sensitivity. (3) low interest in academic. (4) hyperactivity. 22. The term comprehensive valuation implies- (1) evaluation conducted at several points of time. (2) evaluation by a group of teachers. (3) Several tests for long hours. 4) evaluation of scholastic and Co-scholastic aspects of pupil growth. 23. Talking to children of classes VI to VIII about Growing up is (1) not required (2) essential. (3) counterproductive (4) detrimental 24. Which of the following statements about teaching is true? (1) Teaching is a prerequisite of learning. (2) Teaching facilitates learning. (3) Teaching restricts initiative of learners. (4) Teaching is undeniable for good learning. 25. Sandhya and Mamta of class VII are bright students but are extremely jealous of each other. How will you, as a teacher, handle them? 1) not bother as they will outgrow it. (2) Talk to them discreetly about healthy competition. (3) Discuss this with the whole class. (4) Convey your disapproval to them. 26. In a clas s, a student asks the teacher a question and the answer is not known to the teacher. As a teacher you should- (1) scold the child for asking much(prenominal) questions. (2) ignore the child and continue teaching. (3) tell the child that you will look for the answer. (4) feel ashamed that you did not known the answer. 27. A student who had misbehaved with the teacher in class VI, comes to the same teacher in class VIII.S/He avoids interacting with the teacher due to his/ her behavior. The teacher should (1) ignore the child. (2) remind the child of her/his past behaviour. (3) reassure her/him in a personal discussion. (4) call the parents and report the incidence. 28. Raju, a student of your class, is being teased by his classmates for his dark complexion. What do you need to do as a teacher? (1) Ignore this issue (2) Reprimand the class. (3) Tell Raju not to pay attention. (4) Talk to the class about individual differences. 29. Salim is very good in unison but is not able to do w ell in Mathematics.As a teacher of Mathematics, how will you handle Salim? (1) Tell him that Music does not have a future. (2) Tell him to leave Music and study Maths. (3) Call his parents and talk to them. (4) Tell him that he can do well and explain the concepts to him. 30. While teaching if you realize that what you have taught is not correct, you should- (1) leave the topic un ratiocinationed and shift to another(prenominal). (2) Tell the students that it was a mistake and correct it. (3) divert the attention of the students. (4) Scold students to finish the remaining tasks.Mauryan EmpireTheMaurya Empirewas ageographically extensiveIron Age diachronic powerin old-fashioned India, ruled by theMauryan dynastyfrom 321 to 185 BC. Originating from the land ofMagadhain theIndo-Gangetic plains(modernBihar, easternUttar PradeshandBengal) in the eastern side of theIndian subcontinent, the empire had its capital city atPataliputra(modernPatna).The Empire was reared in 322 BC byChandragu pta Maurya, who had overthrown theNanda Dynastyand rapidly grow his power westwards crossways central and westernIndiataking advantage of the disruptions of localpowersin the wake of the withdrawal westward byAlexander the with child(p)s classical and Persian armies. By 320 BC the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering thesatrapsleft by Alexander. With an area of 5,000,000 sq km, it was one of the worldslargest empiresin its time, and the largest ever in the Indian subcontinent.At its greatest extent, the empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of theHimalayas, and to the east stretching into what is nowAssam. To the west, it conquered beyond modernPakistan, annexingBalochistan, south eastern parts ofIranand much of what is nowAfghanistan, including the modernHerat andKandaharprovinces. The Empire was expand into Indias central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta andBindusara, but it excluded a infinitesimal portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions nearKalinga(modernOrissa), cashbox it was conquered byAshoka.Its decline began 60 years later on Ashokas rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of theSunga Dynastyin Magadha. UnderChandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indusregion, which was under Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led bySeleucus I, a Greek general from Alexanders array. Under Chandragupta and his successors, internal and external address, agriculture and sparing activities, all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, governing body, and security department.After theKalinga War, the Empire experienced half a snow of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India too enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of noesis. Chandragupta Mauryas hale ofJainismincreased social and religious renew al and mend across his society, while Ashokas embrace ofBuddhismhas been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and semipolitical peace and non-violence across all of India.Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals intoSri Lanka, Southeast Asia, westernmost Asia and Mediterranean Europe. The universe of the empire has been estimated to be about 50-60 million making the Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of the time. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era ofNorthern Black Polished Ware(NBPW). TheArthashastraand theEdicts of Ashokaare the primary sources of written records of Mauryan times. TheLion Capital of AsokaatSarnath, has been do the nationalemblemof India. Chanakya and Chandragupta MauryaA symbolic statue of young Chandragupta Maurya, In the hookyard ofIndian Parliament, with the inscription, Shepherd boy-Chandragupta Maurya dreaming of India he was to create. Main articlesChanakyaandChandragupta Maurya AHindubrahminnamedChanakya(real name Vishnugupta, as well as known as Kautilya) travelled toMagadha, a kingdom that was large and militarily powerful and feared by its neighbors, but was dismissed by its kingDhana Nanda, of theNanda Dynasty. Meanwhile, the conquering armies ofAlexander the Greatrefused to cross theBeas Riverand climb on further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling Magadha.Alexander returned toBabylonand re-deployed most of his troops west of theIndusriver. Soon after Alexander died inBabylonin323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings stated their independence, leaving several smaller disunited satraps. Chandragupta Maurya deposed Dhana Nanda. The Greek generalsEudemus, andPeithon, ruled until around316 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) utterly defeated the Macedonians and consoli particular dated the region under the domination of his new seat of power in Magadha.Chandragupta maurya rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On the one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the dramaMudrarakshasa(Poem of RakshasaRakshasawas the prime minister of Magadha) by Visakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and notwithstanding link him with the Nanda family. Akshatriyatribe known as theMauryas are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts,Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta setoff emerges in Greek accounts as Sandrokottos.As a young man he is said to have met Alexander. He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and make a narrow escape. Chanakyas original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandraguptas command. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus . conquest of Magadha Main articlesChandragupta Maurya,Nanda Dyna sty, andMagadha Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha.Using his intelligence earnings, Chandragupta gathered many young men from across Magadha and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana, plus resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men include the former general of Taxila, other accomplished students of Chanakya, the exemplar of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu, and the rulers of small states. Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya hatched a plan. A battle was announced and the Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage Mauryas forces.Mauryas general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He also managed to create an atmosphere of genteel war in the kingdom, which culminated in the death of the heir to the throne. Chanakya managed to win over popular sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned, handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was never heard of again. Chanakya contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and do him understand that his loyalty was to Magadha, not to the Magadha dynasty, insisting that he continue in office.Chanakya also reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and prohibit the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakyas causal agencying, and Chandragupta Maurya was legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became Chandraguptas chief advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of an elder statesman. - Chandragupta Maurya whenSeleucus I, ruler of theSeleucid Empire, tried to reconquer the northwestern parts of India, during a campaign in 305 BCE, but failed.The two rulers finally concluded a peace treaty a marital treaty (Epigamia) was concluded, in which the Greeks offered their Princess for alliance and help from him. Chandragupta snatched the satrapies ofParopamisade(KambojaandGandhara),Arachosi a(Kandhahar) andGedrosia(Balochistan), andSeleucus Ireceived 500war elephantsthat were to have a decisive role in his victory against westernHellenistickings at theBattle of Ipsusin 301 BCE. diplomatic relations were established and several Greeks, such as the historianMegasthenes,DeimakosandDionysiusresided at the Mauryan court.Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex administration at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, wassurrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers (and) rivaled the splendors of contemporaneousPersiansites such asSusaandEcbatana. Chandraguptas sonBindusaraextended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, namedDeimachus(Strabo170). Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude under Chandragupta, who live simply, honestly, and do not know writing The Indians all live frugally, especially when in camp.They dislike a great undisciplined multitude, and wherefore they observe good order. Theft is of very rare occurrence. Megasthenes says that those who were in the camp of Sandrakottos, wherein lay 400,000 men, found that the thefts reported on any one day did not exceed the value of two hundred drachmae, and this among a people who have no written laws, but are ignorant of writing, and must therefore in all the business of life trust to memory. They live, nevertheless, happily enough, being simple in their manners and frugal. They never drink wine except at sacrifices.Their boozing is a liquor composed from rice instead of barley, and their food is principally a rice-pottage. - - Ahoka the Great Chandraguptas grandson i. e. , Bindusaras son was Ashokavardhan Maurya, also known as Ashoka or Ashoka The Great (ruled 273- 232 BCE). As a young prince, Ashoka was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Taxila. As sovereign he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empires superiority in southern and western In dia.But it was his conquest ofKalingawhich proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Although Ashokas army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious war furthermoste, including over 10,000 of Ashokas own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse, and he cried what have I done? . Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings ofGautama Buddha, and renounced war and violence.For a monarch in ancient times, this was an historic feat. Ashoka implemented principles ofahimsaby banning hunting and violent sports activity and ending indentured and agonistic labor (many thousands of people in war-ravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard labor and servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army, to keep the p eace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country. over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized encrypt of inspiration in modern India. TheEdicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as far west asAfghanistanand as far south as Andhra (Nellore District), Ashokas edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written inGreek, and one in both Greek andAramaic. Ashokas edicts refer to the Greeks,Kambojas, and Gandharasas peoples forming a frontier region of his empire.They also attest to Ashokas having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the Hel lenicworld at the time such asAmtiyoko(Antiochus),Tulamaya(Ptolemy),Amtikini(Antigonos),Maka(Magas) andAlikasudaro(Alexander) as recipients of Ashokas proselytism. The Edicts also accurately locate their territory 600 yojanas away (a yojanas being about 7 miles), correspond to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles). 14 -Administration Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum. The Empire was divided into four provinces, which one of the four, look like a giant crescents. with the imperial capital atPataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals areTosali(in the east),Ujjainin the west,Suvarnagiri(in the south), andTaxila(in the north). The head of the provincial administration was theKumara(royal prince), who governed the provinces as kings representative. Thekumarawas aided by Mahamatyas and council of ministers.This organizational structure was reflected at the imp erial level with the emperor butterfly and hisMantriparishad(Council of Ministers). Historians theorize that the organization of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy exposit byKautilyain theArthashastra a sophisticate civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have been the largest standing army of its time. consort to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a array of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants.A vastespionagesystem collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless go along to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instill stability and peace across West and South Asia Economy Silver punch mark coin of theMauryan empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE. For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a habitual economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity.The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of taxation and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationwide administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in theArthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders.The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to newfound political unity and internal peace. Mauryan cast copper coin. Late 3rd century BCE. British Museum. Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashokas reign, an international network of trade expanded.TheKhyber have, on the modern boundary ofPakistanandAfghanistan, became a strategically important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through theMalay peninsulainto Southeast Asia. Indias exports included silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with an exchange of scientific knowledge and technology with Europe and West Asia. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works.The easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire. In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is analogous to the Roman Empire of several centuries later. Both had extensive trade linkups and both had organizations similar tocorporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities. These existed rigorously for private commerce and create before the Mauryan Empire itself.The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India. University of Michigan. - - Religion Balarama, holding mace and conch (lower right) on a Maurya coin. Balarama was originally a powerful independent deity of Hinduism, and was considered an avatar ofVishnu. 3rd2nd century CE. British Museum. Buddhiststupasduring the Mauryan period were simple mounds without decorations. Butkara stupa, 3rd century BCE. Buddhistproselytismat the time o f kingAshoka(260218 BCE).Mauryan architecture in theBarabar Mounts. Grottoe of Lomas Richi. 3rd century BCE. Hinduism Hinduismwas the only religion at the time of inception of the empire, Hindu priests and ministers use to be an important part of the emperors court, likeChanakyaalso known asVishnu Gupt. Ajivikas, anasceticHindu movement was also practiced, Bhattotpala, in 950 A. D. identified them with the Ekandandins writes that they are devotees of Narayana (Vishnu), although Shilanka speaking of the Ekandandins in another connection identifies them as Shaivas (devotees ofShiva).Scholar James Hastings identifies the name Mankhaliputta or Mankhali with thebamboo staff. Scholar Jitendra N. Banerjea compares them to thePasupatasShaivas. It is believed by scholar Charpentier that the Ajivikas before Makkhali Goshala worshiped Shiva. Chanakya wrote in his textChanakya Niti, Humbly bowing fine-tune before the almighty Lord Sri Vishnu, the Lord of the three worlds, I recite maxims of th e science of political ethics (niti) selected from the various satras (scriptures) Even after embracing Buddhism, Ashoka carry the membership of Hindu Brahmana priests and ministers in his court.Mauryan society began embracing the philosophy ofahimsa, and given the increased prosperity and improved law enforcement, crime and internal divergences reduced dramatically. overly greatly discouraged was thecaste systemand orthodox discrimination, as Mauryans began to absorb the ideals and values of Jain and Buddhist teachings along with traditionalVedic Hinduteachings. BuddhismAshoka ab initio practiced Hinduism but later embracedBuddhism, following theKalinga War, he renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of theArthashastraon the use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his sonMahindaand daughterSanghamittatoSri Lanka, whose kingTissawas so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions oWest Asia,GreeceandSouth East Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries, schools and publication of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is believed to have build as many as 84,000 stupas across India i. e. SanchiandMahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity of Buddhism inAfghanistan,ThailandandNorth AsiaincludingSiberia. Ashoka helped convene theThird Buddhist Councilof India and South Asias Buddhist orders, near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion. JainismEmperor Chandragupta Maurya embracedJainismafter retiring. At an older age, Chandragupta renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a aider ofAcharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self purifyingJainritual ofsantharai. e. fast unto death, atShr avana BelagolainKarnataka. However, his successor, Emperor Bindusara, was a follower of a Hindu ascetic movement,Ajivikaand distanced himself from Jain and Buddhist movements. Samprati, the grandson ofAshokaalso embracedJainism.Samrat Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monkArya Suhasti Suriand he is known to have built 125,000Jain Templesacross India. Some of them are still found in towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain & Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers & preachers to Greece, Persia & middle-east for the spread of Jainism. But to date no research has been done in this area. Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta&Sampratiare credited for the spread ofJainisminSouthern India.Lakhs ofJain Temples&Jain Stupaswere erected during their reign. But due to lack of royal shop at & its strict principles, along with the rise ofShankaracharya&Ramanujacharya,Jainism, once the major religion of southern India, began to decline. architectural remains Architectural remains of the Maurya period are rather few. Remains of ahypostylebuilding with about 80 columns of a height of about 10 meters have been found inKumhrar, 5km fromPatnaRailway station, and is one of the very few sites that has been connected to the rule of the Mauryas.The style is rather reminiscent of Persian Achaemenid architecture. The grottoes ofBarabar Caves, are another example of Mauryan architecture, especially the decorated front of the Lomas Rishi grotto. These were offered by the Mauryas to the Buddhist sect of theAjivikas. The most widespread example of Maurya architecture are the newspaper columns of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the sub-continent. - - Natural history in the times of the MauryasThe protective cover of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya dynasty being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitud e of the Mauryas towards forests, its denizens and fauna in general is of interest. The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as a resource. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants these played a role in the defeat ofSeleucus,Alexanders governor of the Punjab.The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them. KautilyasArthashastracontains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as theProtector of the Elephant Forests On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The sanction of the Chief Elephant Forrester should with the help of guards protect the elephants in any terrain.The slaying of an elephant is punishable by death.. Arthashastra The Mauryas also d esignated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers, for skins. elsewhere theProtector of Animalsalso worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle. The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation.They employed some of them, the food-gatherers oraranyacato guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire WhenAshokaembracedBuddhismin the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in ston e edicts.The edicts tickle pink that many followed the kings example in giving up the slaughter of animals one of them proudly states Our king killed very few animals. Edict on Fifth Pillar However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events the mention of a 100 panas (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The reasoned restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests. 24 Foundation of the Empire Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya Empire. Plutarchreports that Chandragupta Maurya met withAlexander the Great, probably aroundTaxilain the northwest Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and de spised on account of his baseness and low gestate.Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE) Chandragupta last occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as Prefects in Western sources) left in spot after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have beenEudemus, ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE orPeithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure forBabylonin 316 BCE. India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has liberated from foreign domination Justin XV. 4. 213 Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a immense wild elephant went to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory. Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE) Silver coin ofSeleucus I Nicator, who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later made an alliance with him.Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedoniansatrapof theAsianportion of Alexanders former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered in a confrontation with Chandragupta Always guile in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he Seleucus acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, Seleucid Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after tha t of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus.Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 5528 Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed in conquering any territory, and in fact, was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta, including southernAfghanistanand parts ofPersia. Accordingly, Seleucus obtained five hundred war elephants, a military asset which would play a decisive role at theBattle of Ipsusin 301 BCE. Marital allianceIt is generally purpose that Chandragupta marriedSeleucussdaughter, or a GreekMacedonianprincess, a gift from Seleucus to formalize an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500war-elephants,a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsusin 302 BC. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador,Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and laterDeimakosto his sonBindusara, at the Mauryan court atPataliputra(modernPatnainBihar state). LaterPtolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler ofPtolemaic Egyptand contemporary ofAshoka the Great, is also recorded byPliny the Elderas having sent an ambassador namedDionysiusto the Mauryan court.Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including theHindu Kush, modern dayAfghanistan, and theBalochistanprovince ofPakistan. Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of theEdicts of Ashoka, are known as far asKandhaharin southern Afghanistan. The treaty on Epigamia implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both . Exchange of ambassadors Seleucus dispatched an ambassador,Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and laterDeimakosto his sonBindusara, at the Mauryan court atPataliputra(ModernPatnainBihar state).LaterPtolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler ofPtolemaic Egyptand contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded byPliny the Elderas having sent an ambassador namedDionysiusto theMauryancourt. Exchange of presents Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent variousaphrodisiacsto Seleucus And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters as to make people more amorous. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish loveAthenaeus of Naucratis.His sonBindusaraAmitraghata (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources a s having exchanged present withAntiochus I But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, asAristophanessays, Theres really nothing nicer than dried figs), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote toAntiochus, entreating him (it isHegesanderwho tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and asophist and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in GreeceAthenaeus, Deipnosophistae XIV. 67 Greek nation in IndiaGreek population apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashokas rule. In hisEdicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka describes that Greek population within his realm converted to Buddhism Here in the kings domain among the Greeks, theKambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, theAndhrasand the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods instructions inDharma. flutter Edict Nb13(S. Dhammika). Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic has been discovered inKandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms.In this Edict, Ashoka uses the wordEusebeia(Piety) as the Greek displacement for the ubiquitous Dharma of his other Edicts written inPrakrit Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety to men and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in th e future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily.Buddhist missions to the West (c. 250 BCE) Front descry of the single lion capital inVaishali. Also, in theEdicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as a recipient of hisBuddhistproselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remain The conquest byDharmahas been won here, on the borders, and even six hundredyojanas(5,4009,600 km) away, where the Greek kingAntiochosrules, beyond there where the four kings namedPtolemy,Antigonos,MagasandAlexanderrule, likewise in the south among theCholas, thePandyas, and as far asTamraparni(Sri Lanka). (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th joggle Edict, S. Dhammika).Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development ofherbal medicine, for men and animals, in their territories Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasis Ashokas domain, and among the people beyond the borders, theCholas, thePandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keral aputras, as far asTamraparniand where the Greek kingAntiochosrules, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical handling medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals. nd Rock Edict The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such asDharmaraksita, are described inPalisources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (theMahavamsa, Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE) Sophagasenuswas an IndianMauryanruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek sources, and named S ubhagsena or Subhashsena inPrakrit. His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes, and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descending(prenominal) of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson ofAshoka, orKunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of theHindu Kush, possibly inGandhara. Antiochos III, theSeleucidking, after having made peace withEuthydemusinBactria, went to India in 206 BC nd is said to have regenerate his friendship with the Indian king there He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him. Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a time of weaker kings. Brhadrata, the last ruler of theMauryan dynasty, held ter ritories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperorAshoka, although he still upheld the Buddhist faith. Sunga coup (185 BCE) Brihadratawas assassinated in 185 BCE during a military parade, by the commander-in-chief of his guard, thebrahmangeneralPusyamitra Sunga, who then took over the throne and established theSunga dynasty.Buddhist records such as theAsokavadanawrite that the assassination of Brhadrata and the rise of the Sunga empire led to a wave of persecution forBuddhists,and a resurgence ofHinduism. According toSir John Marshall,Pusyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Sunga kings seem to have been more puntive of Buddhism. Other historians, such asEtienne Lamotte andRomila Thapar, among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favor of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated. Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE) Th e fall of the Mauryas left theKhyber Passunguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed.TheGreco-Bactrianking,Demetrius, capitalized on the break-up, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and Pakistan around 180 BC, forming theIndo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kingsMenanderbecame a famous figure of Buddhism, he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city ofSialkot. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence points that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ.Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as theSungas,Satavahanas, andKalingasare unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamedIndo-Scythians, brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region ofMathura, and Gujarat. Reasons The decline of the Maurya Dynasty was rather rapid after the death of Ashoka/Asoka. One obvious reason for it was the succession of weak kings. Another immediate cause was the partition of the Empire into two. Had not the partition taken place, the Greek invasions could have been held back giving a chance to the Mauryas to re-establish some degree of their previous power. Regarding the decline much has been written. Haraprasad Sastri contends that the revolt by Pushyamitra was the result of brahminical reaction against the pro-Buddhist policies of Ashoka and pro-Jaina policies of his successors.Basing themselves on this thesis, some maintain the view that brahminical reaction was responsible for the decline because of the following reasons. 1. Prohibition of the slaughter of animals displeased the Brahmins as animal sacrifices were esteemed by them. 2. The book Divyavadana refers to the persecution of Bud dhists by Pushyamitra Sunga. 3. Asokas claim that he exposed the Budheveas (brahmins) as false gods shows that Ashoka was not well disposed towards Brahmins. 4. The capture of power by Pushyamitra Sunga shows the triumph of Brahmins 5. All of these four points can be easily refuted. 6. Asokas compassion towards animals was not an overnight decision. Repulsion of animal sacrifices grew over a long period of time. Even Brahmins gave it up. 7.The book Divyavadana cannot be relied upon since it was during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga that the Sanchi and Barhut stupas were completed. The printing of the persecution of Buddhism was probably created by Menanders invasion, since he was a Buddhist. 8. The word budheva is misinterpreted because this word is to be taken in the context of some other phrase. Viewed like this, the word has nothing to do with brahminism. 9. The victory of Pushyamitra Sunga clearly shows that the last of the Mauryas was an incompetent ruler since he was overthrow n in the very presence of his army, and this had nothing to do with brahminical reaction against Asokas patronage of Buddhism.Moreover, the very fact that a Brahmin was the commander in chief of the Mauryan ruler proves that the Mauryas and the Brahmins were on good terms. After all, the distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism in India was purely sectarian and never more than the difference between saivism and vaishnavism. The exclusiveness of religious doctrines is a Semitic conception, which was unknown to India for a long time. Buddha himself was looked upon in his lifetime and afterwards as a Hindu saint and avatar and his followers were but another sect in the great Aryan tradition. Ashoka was a Buddhist in the same way as Harsha was a Budhist, or Kumarapala was a Jain.But in the view of the people of the day he was a Hindu monarch following one of the recognized sects. His own inscriptions bear ample withness to the fact. While his doctrines follow the middle path, his gift s are to the brahmibns, sramansa (Buddhist priests) and others equally. His own name of adoption is Devanam Priya, the beloved of the gods. Which gods? sure as shooting the gods of the Aryan religion. Buddhism had no gods of its own. The idea that Ashoka was a kind of Buddhist Constantine declearing himself against paganism is a complete misreading of India conditions. Asoka was a kind or Buddhist Constantine declearing himself against paganism is a complete misreading of India conditions.Asoka was essentially a Hindu, as indeed was the founder of the sect to which he belonged. Raychaudhury too rebuts the assembly lines of Sastri. The empire had shrunk considerably and there was no revolution. Killing the Mauryan King while he was reviewing the army points to a palace coup detat not a revolution. The organization were ready to accept any one who could promise a more efficient organization. Also if Pushyamitra was really a representative of brahminical reaction he neighbouting kin gs would have definitely given him assistance. The argument that the empire became effete because of Asokan policies is also very thin. All the evidence suggests that Asoka was a stern monarch although his reign witnessed only a single campaign.He was subtle enough in retaining Kalinga although he expressed his remorse. Well he was wordly-wise to enslave and-and-half lakh sudras of Kalinga and bring them to the Magadha region to cut forests and cultivate land. More than this his tours of the empire were not only meant for the sake of piety but also for keeping an eye on the centrifugal tendencies of the empire. Which addressing the tribal people Asoka expressed his willingness to for given. More draconian was Ashokas heart to the forest tribes who were warned of the power which he possessed. This view of Raychoudhury on the pacifism of the State cannot be substantiated. Apart from these two major writers there is a third view as expressed by kosambi.He based his arguments that unn ecessary measures were taken up to increase tax and the punch-marked coins of the period show evidence of debasement. This contention too cannot be up held. It is quite possible that debased coins began to circulate during the period of the later Mauryas. On the other hand the debasement may also indicate that there was an increased demand for silver in relation to goods leading to the silver content of the coins being reduced. More important point is the fact that the material remains of the post-Asokan era do not suggest any pressure on the economy. Instead the economy prospered as shown by archaeological evidence at Hastinapura and Sisupalqarh. The reign of Asoka was an asset to the economy.The unification of the country under single efficient administration the organization and increase in communications meant the development of trade as well as an opening of many new commercial interest. In the post Asokan period surplus wealth was used by the rising commercial classes to deco rate religious buildings. The sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi and the Deccan caves was the contribution of this new bourgeoisie. Still another view regarding of the decline of Mauryas was that the coup of Pushyamitra was a peoples revolt against Mauryans oppression and a rejection of the Maurya adoption of foreign ideas, as far interest in Mauryan Art. This argument is based on the view that Sunga art (Sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi) is more earthy and in the folk tradition that Maruyan art. This is more stretching the argument too far.The character of Sunga art changed because it served a different purpose and its donors belonged to different social classes. Also, Sunga art conformed more to the folk traditions because Buddhism itself had incorporated large elements of popular cults and because the donors of this art, many of whom may have been artisans, were culturally more in the mainstream of folk tradition. One more reasoning to support the popular revolt theory is based on Asok as ban on the samajas. Asoka did ban festive meetings and discouraged eating of meat. These too might have entagonised the population but it is doubtful whether these prohibitions were strictly enforced.The above argument (peoples revolt) also means that Asokas policy was continued by his successors also, an assumption not confirmed by historical data. Further more, it is unlikely that there was sufficient national consciousness among the varied people of the Mauryan empire. It is also argued by these theorists that Asokan policy in all its details was continued by the later Mauryas, which is not a historical fact. Still another argument that is advanced in favour of the idea of revolt against the Mauryas is that the land tax under the Mauryas was one-quarter, which was very burden some to the cultivator. But historical evidence shows something else. The land tax varied from region to region according to the fertility of the demesne and the availability of water.The figure of one q uarter stated by Magasthenes probably referred only to the fertile and well-watered regions around Pataliputra. Thus the decline of the Mauryan empire cannot be satisfactorily explained by referring to Military inactivity, Brahmin resentment, popular uprising or economic pressure. The causes of the decline were more fundamental. The organization of administration and the concept of the State were such that they could be sustained by only by kings of considerably personal ability. After the death of Asoka there was definitely a weakening at the center specially after the division of the empire, which inevitably led to the breaking of provinces from the Mauryan rule.Also, it should be borne in mind that all the officials owed their loyalty to the king and not to the State. This meant that a change of king could result in change of officials leading to the demoralization of the officers. Mauryas had no system of ensuring the continuation of well-planned bureaucracy. The next important weakness of the Mauryan Empire was its extreme centralization and the practical(prenominal) monopoly of all powers by the king. There was a total absence of any advisory institution representing public opinion. That is why the Mauryas depended greatly on the espionage system. Added to this lack of representative institutions there was no distinction between the executive and the judiciary of the government.An incapable king may use the officers either for purposes of oppression or fail to use it for good purpose. And as the successors of Asoka happened to be weak, the empire inevitably declined. Added to these two factors, there is no conception of national unity of political consciousness. It is clear from the fact that even the oppositeness against the greeks as the hated miecchas was not an organized one. The only resistance was that of the local rulers who were afraid of losing their newly acquired territory. It is significant that when Porus was fighting Alexander, or when S ubhagasena was paying shelter to Antiochus, they were doing so as isolated rulers in the northwest of India.They had no support from Pataliputra, nor are they even mentioned in any Indian sources as offering resistance to the hated Yavanas. Even the heroic Porus, who, enemy though he was, won the admiration of the Greeks, is left unrecorded in Indian sources. Another associated point of great importance is the fact that the Mauryan Empire which was highly centralized and autocratic was the first and last one of its kind. If the Mauryan Empire did not survive for long, it could be because of the failure of the successors of Asoka to hold on to the principles that could make success of such an empire. Further, the Mauryan empire and the philosophy of the empire was not in tune with the spirit of the time because Aryanism and brahminism was very much there.According to the Brahmin or Aryan philosophy, the king was only an upholder of dharma, but never the crucial or architecture facto r influencing the whole of life. In other words, the sentiment of the people towards the political factor, that is the State was never established in India. Such being the reality, when the successors of Asoka failed to make use of the institution and the thinking that was needed to make a success of a centralized political authority. The Mauryan Empire declined without anyones regret. Other factors of importance that contributed to the decline and lack of national unity were the ownership of land and dissimilitude of economic levels. Land could frequently change hands.Fertility wise the region of the Ganges was more prosperous than northern Deccan. Mauryan administration was not fully tuned to meet the existing disparities in economic activity. Had the southern region been more developed, the empire could have witnessed economic homogeneity. Also the people of the sub-continent were not of uniform cultural level. The sophisticated cities and the trade centers were a great contrast to the isolated village communities. All these differences naturally led to the economic and political structures being different from region to region. It is also a fact that even the languages spoken were varied. The history of a