Mauryan Empire

SYLLABUS OF FIRST PAPER OF TET Paper II (for manikines VI to VIII) easy Stage 30 Questions I. Child Develop handst and educational activity 15 Questions a) Child Develop manpowert (Elementary School Child) Concept of development and its relationship with reading Principles of the development of children squ atomic number 18 up of Heredity & Environment Socialization processes Social world & children (Teacher, Pargonnts, Peers) Piaget, Kohlberg and Vygotsky constructs and critical perspectives Concepts of child-centered and progressive education Critical perspective of the construct of In identifyigence Multi Dimensional Intelligence wrangle & Thought Gender as a social construct gender affairs, gender-bias and educational practice Individual differences among learners, understanding differences based on diver gravely of language, caste, gender, community, piety etc. Distinction between Assessment for learning and assessment of learning SchoolBased Assessment, Cont inuous & Comprehensive Evaluation perspective and practice Formulating appropriate questions for assessing readiness levels of learners for enhancing learning and critical thin queer in the schoolroom and or assessing learner achievement. b) Concept of Inclusive education and understanding children with special needs 5 Questions Addressing learners from diverse backgrounds including separate and deprived Addressing the needs of children with learning difficulties, impairment etc Addressing the Talented, Creative, Specially ab take Learners c) Learning and Pedagogy 10 Questions How children think and learn how and why children fail to achieve success in school per systemance Basic processes of precept and learning childrens strategies of learning learning as social activity social context of learning. Child as a problem solver and a scientific investigator Alternative conceptions of learning in children understanding childrens errors as significant steps in the learning proc ess. Cognition & Emotions Motivation and learning Factors contributing to learning personal & environmental II. Language I. 30 Questions a) Language Comprehension 15 Questions Reading unobserved passages- two passages iodin prose or drama and one poem with questions on comprehension, inference, grammar and verbal dexterity (Prose passage may e lit sequencery, scientific, narrative or discursive) b) Pedagogy of Language Development 15 Questions Learning and acquisition Principles of language Teaching Role of listening and spea major power function of language and how children give it as a alikel Critical perspective on the role of grammar in learning a language for communicating ideas verbally and in write form Challenges of dogma language in a diverse classroom language difficulties, errors and disorders Language Skills Evaluating language comprehension and proficiency speaking, listening, reading and writing Teaching-learning squares Textbook, multi-media material s, multilingual option of the classroom Remedial Teaching III. Language- II 30 Questions a)Comprehension 15 Questions Two unseen prose passages (discursive or literary or narrative or scientific) with questions on comprehension, grammar and verbal ability b) Pedagogy of Language Development 15 Questions Learning and acquisition Principles of language Teaching Role of listening and speaking function of language and how children use it as a tool Critical perspective on the role of grammar in learning a language for communicating deas verbally and in written form Challenges of teaching language in a diverse classroom language difficulties, errors and disorders Language Skills Evaluating language comprehension and proficiency speaking, listening, reading and writing Teaching-learning materials Textbook, multi-media materials, multilingual resource of the classroom Remedial Teaching ____________________________________________________________ _____ SECTION 2 Section-I CHILD DE VELPOMENT AND PEDAGOGY 1. Raja, a student of your class, is very deform due to the acne on his face. What allow for u do? (1) Ignore him. 2) Tell him that it is normal and is due to hormonal changes. (3) Tell him to go to a doctor as it is a medical problem. (4) Scold and tell him non to waste time on these issues. 2. A student wants to sh be his personal problems and asks for permission to call on u at your residence. What should be your response? (1) Avoid giving time. (2) rejoin an appointment readily. (3) Tell him that u do non encourage students to visit at the residence. (4) Ignore the child. 3. If you come to know that a child of your class is facing problems related to parents separation at home, what would you do? 1) Do not talk to the child on this issue. (2) Treat her/him sympathetically. (3) Talk to the parents. (4) Be indifferent to the child. 4. If you come to know that the father of a student has been tested HIV positive, what will you do? (1) Disclose the infor mation to the class. (2) Make the child sit separately. (3) Ask the parents to withdraw the child. (4) Let him continue with the studies alike others. 5. Kavya a student of your class, is visually challenged and you subscribe a function coming up. What will you do? (1) Give her the opus of a narrator. 2) Ask her to stay at home during the function. (3) Discourage her from participating. (4) Give her a less important duty. 6. Manjusha is very interested in sports and wants to track her career in sports. What will you suggest to her? (1) Girls take retain no time to come in sports. (2) She should put in hard work to achieve her ambition. (3) Ask her to be focused only in academics. (4) Girls cannot excel in sports as they are not physically strong. 7. Twelve year old Radhika has begun to imitate the style of public lecture of her teacher.This form of behavior is known as- (1) compensation (2) transference (3) sublimation (4) egocentrism 8. For conducting a social science class in an interesting way, teachers should- (1) give notes (2) give written homework (3) use role-plays effectively (4) encourage extra reading 9. A 11-12 year old child generally faces to a vaster extent(prenominal) problems related to- (1) eye move over coordination (2) anxiety about studies. (3) need for peer approval (4) understanding mathematics. 10.Which of the pursuance is roughly essential for learning? (1) Good parent child relationship (2) utmost intelligence (3) Good school (4) Desire to learn 11. Which of the following is not good for quality learning? (1) Making notes (3) Extra reading (3) Using film books (4) Self Study 12. Which of the following may damage a low achieving student psychologically? (1) Making children film record of the class test label. (2) Discussing the marks of individual students in the class. (3) Discussing the reclaim answers in the class. 4) Making children correct their own notebooks. 13. When most of the students in a class do not und erstand a concept clearly, the teacher should- (1) repeat the lesson once again. (2) conduct hands on activities on that concept. (3) Ask students to take avail from parents. (4) rebuff and move to the next concept. 14. To correct the stammering problem of a class VIII student, a teacher should (1) ignore the child. (2) provide more opportunities for speaking. (3) check the child whenever she/he stammers. (4) seek professional help. 15. Which of the following statements about the role of a teacher is correct? 1) Teacher should be a critic only. (2) Teacher should favour good students. (3) Teacher should have a friendly attitude to state of wards students. (4) Teacher should maintain a distance from students. 16. For ensuring and improving class discipline, the teacher should- (1) arrange regular parent- teacher meetings. (2) Call authorities to the class. (3) be strict with students and punish them. (4) evaluate the methods and approaches used in the class. 17. To address the div ersity in academic achievement, an effective teaching method can be (1) dictating notes (2) conjunctive teaching. 3) lecturing (4)giving tests. 18. In which stage of cognitive development is a child, when she/he is able to work out problems logically and can do multiple mixed bag? (1) Pre operational stage (2) Formal operational stage (3) Concrete operation stage (4) Sensori-motor stage 19. Gaurav of class VII gave a letter to his classmate Seema face that he loves her. What should the teacher do? (1) Ignore the issue (2) Punish Gaurav (3) Counsel Gaurav appropriately (4) Let the Principal handle the issue 20.Children from the under privileged sections of the fellowship can benefit more if they are (1) provided with insureing for self employment (2) exempted from homework and class tests. (3) provided with richer learning environment in school. (4) given simpler learning tasks. 21. Students in classes VII-VIII face problems mostly related to (1) identity crisis. (2) emotional sensitivity. (3) low interest in academic. (4) hyperactivity. 22. The term comprehensive valuation implies- (1) evaluation conducted at several points of time. (2) evaluation by a group of teachers. (3) Several tests for long hours. 4) evaluation of scholastic and Co-scholastic aspects of pupil growth. 23. Talking to children of classes VI to VIII about Growing up is (1) not required (2) essential. (3) counterproductive (4) detrimental 24. Which of the following statements about teaching is true? (1) Teaching is a prerequisite of learning. (2) Teaching facilitates learning. (3) Teaching restricts initiative of learners. (4) Teaching is undeniable for good learning. 25. Sandhya and Mamta of class VII are bright students but are extremely jealous of each other. How will you, as a teacher, handle them? 1) not bother as they will outgrow it. (2) Talk to them discreetly about healthy competition. (3) Discuss this with the whole class. (4) Convey your disapproval to them. 26. In a clas s, a student asks the teacher a question and the answer is not known to the teacher. As a teacher you should- (1) scold the child for asking much(prenominal) questions. (2) ignore the child and continue teaching. (3) tell the child that you will look for the answer. (4) feel ashamed that you did not known the answer. 27. A student who had misbehaved with the teacher in class VI, comes to the same teacher in class VIII.S/He avoids interacting with the teacher due to his/ her behavior. The teacher should (1) ignore the child. (2) remind the child of her/his past behaviour. (3) reassure her/him in a personal discussion. (4) call the parents and report the incidence. 28. Raju, a student of your class, is being teased by his classmates for his dark complexion. What do you need to do as a teacher? (1) Ignore this issue (2) Reprimand the class. (3) Tell Raju not to pay attention. (4) Talk to the class about individual differences. 29. Salim is very good in unison but is not able to do w ell in Mathematics.As a teacher of Mathematics, how will you handle Salim? (1) Tell him that Music does not have a future. (2) Tell him to leave Music and study Maths. (3) Call his parents and talk to them. (4) Tell him that he can do well and explain the concepts to him. 30. While teaching if you realize that what you have taught is not correct, you should- (1) leave the topic un ratiocinationed and shift to another(prenominal). (2) Tell the students that it was a mistake and correct it. (3) divert the attention of the students. (4) Scold students to finish the remaining tasks.Mauryan EmpireTheMaurya Empirewas ageographically extensiveIron Age diachronic powerin old-fashioned India, ruled by theMauryan dynastyfrom 321 to 185 BC. Originating from the land ofMagadhain theIndo-Gangetic plains(modernBihar, easternUttar PradeshandBengal) in the eastern side of theIndian subcontinent, the empire had its capital city atPataliputra(modernPatna).The Empire was reared in 322 BC byChandragu pta Maurya, who had overthrown theNanda Dynastyand rapidly grow his power westwards crossways central and westernIndiataking advantage of the disruptions of localpowersin the wake of the withdrawal westward byAlexander the with child(p)s classical and Persian armies. By 320 BC the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering thesatrapsleft by Alexander. With an area of 5,000,000 sq km, it was one of the worldslargest empiresin its time, and the largest ever in the Indian subcontinent.At its greatest extent, the empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of theHimalayas, and to the east stretching into what is nowAssam. To the west, it conquered beyond modernPakistan, annexingBalochistan, south eastern parts ofIranand much of what is nowAfghanistan, including the modernHerat andKandaharprovinces. The Empire was expand into Indias central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta andBindusara, but it excluded a infinitesimal portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions nearKalinga(modernOrissa), cashbox it was conquered byAshoka.Its decline began 60 years later on Ashokas rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of theSunga Dynastyin Magadha. UnderChandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indusregion, which was under Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led bySeleucus I, a Greek general from Alexanders array. Under Chandragupta and his successors, internal and external address, agriculture and sparing activities, all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, governing body, and security department.After theKalinga War, the Empire experienced half a snow of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India too enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of noesis. Chandragupta Mauryas hale ofJainismincreased social and religious renew al and mend across his society, while Ashokas embrace ofBuddhismhas been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and semipolitical peace and non-violence across all of India.Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals intoSri Lanka, Southeast Asia, westernmost Asia and Mediterranean Europe. The universe of the empire has been estimated to be about 50-60 million making the Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of the time. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era ofNorthern Black Polished Ware(NBPW). TheArthashastraand theEdicts of Ashokaare the primary sources of written records of Mauryan times. TheLion Capital of AsokaatSarnath, has been do the nationalemblemof India. Chanakya and Chandragupta MauryaA symbolic statue of young Chandragupta Maurya, In the hookyard ofIndian Parliament, with the inscription, Shepherd boy-Chandragupta Maurya dreaming of India he was to create. Main articlesChanakyaandChandragupta Maurya AHindubrahminnamedChanakya(real name Vishnugupta, as well as known as Kautilya) travelled toMagadha, a kingdom that was large and militarily powerful and feared by its neighbors, but was dismissed by its kingDhana Nanda, of theNanda Dynasty. Meanwhile, the conquering armies ofAlexander the Greatrefused to cross theBeas Riverand climb on further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling Magadha.Alexander returned toBabylonand re-deployed most of his troops west of theIndusriver. Soon after Alexander died inBabylonin323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings stated their independence, leaving several smaller disunited satraps. Chandragupta Maurya deposed Dhana Nanda. The Greek generalsEudemus, andPeithon, ruled until around316 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) utterly defeated the Macedonians and consoli particular dated the region under the domination of his new seat of power in Magadha.Chandragupta maurya rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On the one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the dramaMudrarakshasa(Poem of RakshasaRakshasawas the prime minister of Magadha) by Visakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and notwithstanding link him with the Nanda family. Akshatriyatribe known as theMauryas are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts,Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta setoff emerges in Greek accounts as Sandrokottos.As a young man he is said to have met Alexander. He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and make a narrow escape. Chanakyas original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandraguptas command. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus . conquest of Magadha Main articlesChandragupta Maurya,Nanda Dyna sty, andMagadha Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha.Using his intelligence earnings, Chandragupta gathered many young men from across Magadha and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana, plus resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men include the former general of Taxila, other accomplished students of Chanakya, the exemplar of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu, and the rulers of small states. Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya hatched a plan. A battle was announced and the Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage Mauryas forces.Mauryas general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He also managed to create an atmosphere of genteel war in the kingdom, which culminated in the death of the heir to the throne. Chanakya managed to win over popular sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned, handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was never heard of again. Chanakya contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and do him understand that his loyalty was to Magadha, not to the Magadha dynasty, insisting that he continue in office.Chanakya also reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and prohibit the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakyas causal agencying, and Chandragupta Maurya was legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became Chandraguptas chief advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of an elder statesman. - Chandragupta Maurya whenSeleucus I, ruler of theSeleucid Empire, tried to reconquer the northwestern parts of India, during a campaign in 305 BCE, but failed.The two rulers finally concluded a peace treaty a marital treaty (Epigamia) was concluded, in which the Greeks offered their Princess for alliance and help from him. Chandragupta snatched the satrapies ofParopamisade(KambojaandGandhara),Arachosi a(Kandhahar) andGedrosia(Balochistan), andSeleucus Ireceived 500war elephantsthat were to have a decisive role in his victory against westernHellenistickings at theBattle of Ipsusin 301 BCE. diplomatic relations were established and several Greeks, such as the historianMegasthenes,DeimakosandDionysiusresided at the Mauryan court.Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex administration at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, wassurrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers (and) rivaled the splendors of contemporaneousPersiansites such asSusaandEcbatana. Chandraguptas sonBindusaraextended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, namedDeimachus(Strabo170). Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude under Chandragupta, who live simply, honestly, and do not know writing The Indians all live frugally, especially when in camp.They dislike a great undisciplined multitude, and wherefore they observe good order. Theft is of very rare occurrence. Megasthenes says that those who were in the camp of Sandrakottos, wherein lay 400,000 men, found that the thefts reported on any one day did not exceed the value of two hundred drachmae, and this among a people who have no written laws, but are ignorant of writing, and must therefore in all the business of life trust to memory. They live, nevertheless, happily enough, being simple in their manners and frugal. They never drink wine except at sacrifices.Their boozing is a liquor composed from rice instead of barley, and their food is principally a rice-pottage. - - Ahoka the Great Chandraguptas grandson i. e. , Bindusaras son was Ashokavardhan Maurya, also known as Ashoka or Ashoka The Great (ruled 273- 232 BCE). As a young prince, Ashoka was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Taxila. As sovereign he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empires superiority in southern and western In dia.But it was his conquest ofKalingawhich proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Although Ashokas army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious war furthermoste, including over 10,000 of Ashokas own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse, and he cried what have I done? . Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings ofGautama Buddha, and renounced war and violence.For a monarch in ancient times, this was an historic feat. Ashoka implemented principles ofahimsaby banning hunting and violent sports activity and ending indentured and agonistic labor (many thousands of people in war-ravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard labor and servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army, to keep the p eace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country. over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized encrypt of inspiration in modern India. TheEdicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as far west asAfghanistanand as far south as Andhra (Nellore District), Ashokas edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written inGreek, and one in both Greek andAramaic. Ashokas edicts refer to the Greeks,Kambojas, and Gandharasas peoples forming a frontier region of his empire.They also attest to Ashokas having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the Hel lenicworld at the time such asAmtiyoko(Antiochus),Tulamaya(Ptolemy),Amtikini(Antigonos),Maka(Magas) andAlikasudaro(Alexander) as recipients of Ashokas proselytism. The Edicts also accurately locate their territory 600 yojanas away (a yojanas being about 7 miles), correspond to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles). 14 -Administration Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum. The Empire was divided into four provinces, which one of the four, look like a giant crescents. with the imperial capital atPataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals areTosali(in the east),Ujjainin the west,Suvarnagiri(in the south), andTaxila(in the north). The head of the provincial administration was theKumara(royal prince), who governed the provinces as kings representative. Thekumarawas aided by Mahamatyas and council of ministers.This organizational structure was reflected at the imp erial level with the emperor butterfly and hisMantriparishad(Council of Ministers). Historians theorize that the organization of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy exposit byKautilyain theArthashastra a sophisticate civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have been the largest standing army of its time. consort to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a array of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants.A vastespionagesystem collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless go along to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instill stability and peace across West and South Asia Economy Silver punch mark coin of theMauryan empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE. For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a habitual economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity.The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of taxation and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationwide administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in theArthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders.The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to newfound political unity and internal peace. Mauryan cast copper coin. Late 3rd century BCE. British Museum. Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashokas reign, an international network of trade expanded.TheKhyber have, on the modern boundary ofPakistanandAfghanistan, became a strategically important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through theMalay peninsulainto Southeast Asia. Indias exports included silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with an exchange of scientific knowledge and technology with Europe and West Asia. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works.The easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire. In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is analogous to the Roman Empire of several centuries later. Both had extensive trade linkups and both had organizations similar tocorporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities. These existed rigorously for private commerce and create before the Mauryan Empire itself.The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India. University of Michigan. - - Religion Balarama, holding mace and conch (lower right) on a Maurya coin. Balarama was originally a powerful independent deity of Hinduism, and was considered an avatar ofVishnu. 3rd2nd century CE. British Museum. Buddhiststupasduring the Mauryan period were simple mounds without decorations. Butkara stupa, 3rd century BCE. Buddhistproselytismat the time o f kingAshoka(260218 BCE).Mauryan architecture in theBarabar Mounts. Grottoe of Lomas Richi. 3rd century BCE. Hinduism Hinduismwas the only religion at the time of inception of the empire, Hindu priests and ministers use to be an important part of the emperors court, likeChanakyaalso known asVishnu Gupt. Ajivikas, anasceticHindu movement was also practiced, Bhattotpala, in 950 A. D. identified them with the Ekandandins writes that they are devotees of Narayana (Vishnu), although Shilanka speaking of the Ekandandins in another connection identifies them as Shaivas (devotees ofShiva).Scholar James Hastings identifies the name Mankhaliputta or Mankhali with thebamboo staff. Scholar Jitendra N. Banerjea compares them to thePasupatasShaivas. It is believed by scholar Charpentier that the Ajivikas before Makkhali Goshala worshiped Shiva. Chanakya wrote in his textChanakya Niti, Humbly bowing fine-tune before the almighty Lord Sri Vishnu, the Lord of the three worlds, I recite maxims of th e science of political ethics (niti) selected from the various satras (scriptures) Even after embracing Buddhism, Ashoka carry the membership of Hindu Brahmana priests and ministers in his court.Mauryan society began embracing the philosophy ofahimsa, and given the increased prosperity and improved law enforcement, crime and internal divergences reduced dramatically. overly greatly discouraged was thecaste systemand orthodox discrimination, as Mauryans began to absorb the ideals and values of Jain and Buddhist teachings along with traditionalVedic Hinduteachings. BuddhismAshoka ab initio practiced Hinduism but later embracedBuddhism, following theKalinga War, he renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of theArthashastraon the use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his sonMahindaand daughterSanghamittatoSri Lanka, whose kingTissawas so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions oWest Asia,GreeceandSouth East Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries, schools and publication of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is believed to have build as many as 84,000 stupas across India i. e. SanchiandMahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity of Buddhism inAfghanistan,ThailandandNorth AsiaincludingSiberia. Ashoka helped convene theThird Buddhist Councilof India and South Asias Buddhist orders, near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion. JainismEmperor Chandragupta Maurya embracedJainismafter retiring. At an older age, Chandragupta renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a aider ofAcharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self purifyingJainritual ofsantharai. e. fast unto death, atShr avana BelagolainKarnataka. However, his successor, Emperor Bindusara, was a follower of a Hindu ascetic movement,Ajivikaand distanced himself from Jain and Buddhist movements. Samprati, the grandson ofAshokaalso embracedJainism.Samrat Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monkArya Suhasti Suriand he is known to have built 125,000Jain Templesacross India. Some of them are still found in towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain & Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers & preachers to Greece, Persia & middle-east for the spread of Jainism. But to date no research has been done in this area. Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta&Sampratiare credited for the spread ofJainisminSouthern India.Lakhs ofJain Temples&Jain Stupaswere erected during their reign. But due to lack of royal shop at & its strict principles, along with the rise ofShankaracharya&Ramanujacharya,Jainism, once the major religion of southern India, began to decline. architectural remains Architectural remains of the Maurya period are rather few. Remains of ahypostylebuilding with about 80 columns of a height of about 10 meters have been found inKumhrar, 5km fromPatnaRailway station, and is one of the very few sites that has been connected to the rule of the Mauryas.The style is rather reminiscent of Persian Achaemenid architecture. The grottoes ofBarabar Caves, are another example of Mauryan architecture, especially the decorated front of the Lomas Rishi grotto. These were offered by the Mauryas to the Buddhist sect of theAjivikas. The most widespread example of Maurya architecture are the newspaper columns of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the sub-continent. - - Natural history in the times of the MauryasThe protective cover of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya dynasty being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitud e of the Mauryas towards forests, its denizens and fauna in general is of interest. The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as a resource. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants these played a role in the defeat ofSeleucus,Alexanders governor of the Punjab.The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them. KautilyasArthashastracontains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as theProtector of the Elephant Forests On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The sanction of the Chief Elephant Forrester should with the help of guards protect the elephants in any terrain.The slaying of an elephant is punishable by death.. Arthashastra The Mauryas also d esignated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers, for skins. elsewhere theProtector of Animalsalso worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle. The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation.They employed some of them, the food-gatherers oraranyacato guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire WhenAshokaembracedBuddhismin the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in ston e edicts.The edicts tickle pink that many followed the kings example in giving up the slaughter of animals one of them proudly states Our king killed very few animals. Edict on Fifth Pillar However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events the mention of a 100 panas (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The reasoned restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests. 24 Foundation of the Empire Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya Empire. Plutarchreports that Chandragupta Maurya met withAlexander the Great, probably aroundTaxilain the northwest Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and de spised on account of his baseness and low gestate.Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE) Chandragupta last occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as Prefects in Western sources) left in spot after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have beenEudemus, ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE orPeithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure forBabylonin 316 BCE. India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has liberated from foreign domination Justin XV. 4. 213 Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a immense wild elephant went to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory. Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE) Silver coin ofSeleucus I Nicator, who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later made an alliance with him.Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedoniansatrapof theAsianportion of Alexanders former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered in a confrontation with Chandragupta Always guile in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he Seleucus acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, Seleucid Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after tha t of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus.Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 5528 Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed in conquering any territory, and in fact, was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta, including southernAfghanistanand parts ofPersia. Accordingly, Seleucus obtained five hundred war elephants, a military asset which would play a decisive role at theBattle of Ipsusin 301 BCE. Marital allianceIt is generally purpose that Chandragupta marriedSeleucussdaughter, or a GreekMacedonianprincess, a gift from Seleucus to formalize an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500war-elephants,a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsusin 302 BC. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador,Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and laterDeimakosto his sonBindusara, at the Mauryan court atPataliputra(modernPatnainBihar state). LaterPtolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler ofPtolemaic Egyptand contemporary ofAshoka the Great, is also recorded byPliny the Elderas having sent an ambassador namedDionysiusto the Mauryan court.Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including theHindu Kush, modern dayAfghanistan, and theBalochistanprovince ofPakistan. Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of theEdicts of Ashoka, are known as far asKandhaharin southern Afghanistan. The treaty on Epigamia implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both . Exchange of ambassadors Seleucus dispatched an ambassador,Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and laterDeimakosto his sonBindusara, at the Mauryan court atPataliputra(ModernPatnainBihar state).LaterPtolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler ofPtolemaic Egyptand contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded byPliny the Elderas having sent an ambassador namedDionysiusto theMauryancourt. Exchange of presents Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent variousaphrodisiacsto Seleucus And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters as to make people more amorous. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish loveAthenaeus of Naucratis.His sonBindusaraAmitraghata (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources a s having exchanged present withAntiochus I But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, asAristophanessays, Theres really nothing nicer than dried figs), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote toAntiochus, entreating him (it isHegesanderwho tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and asophist and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in GreeceAthenaeus, Deipnosophistae XIV. 67 Greek nation in IndiaGreek population apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashokas rule. In hisEdicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka describes that Greek population within his realm converted to Buddhism Here in the kings domain among the Greeks, theKambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, theAndhrasand the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods instructions inDharma. flutter Edict Nb13(S. Dhammika). Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic has been discovered inKandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms.In this Edict, Ashoka uses the wordEusebeia(Piety) as the Greek displacement for the ubiquitous Dharma of his other Edicts written inPrakrit Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety to men and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in th e future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily.Buddhist missions to the West (c. 250 BCE) Front descry of the single lion capital inVaishali. Also, in theEdicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as a recipient of hisBuddhistproselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remain The conquest byDharmahas been won here, on the borders, and even six hundredyojanas(5,4009,600 km) away, where the Greek kingAntiochosrules, beyond there where the four kings namedPtolemy,Antigonos,MagasandAlexanderrule, likewise in the south among theCholas, thePandyas, and as far asTamraparni(Sri Lanka). (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th joggle Edict, S. Dhammika).Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development ofherbal medicine, for men and animals, in their territories Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasis Ashokas domain, and among the people beyond the borders, theCholas, thePandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keral aputras, as far asTamraparniand where the Greek kingAntiochosrules, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical handling medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals. nd Rock Edict The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such asDharmaraksita, are described inPalisources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (theMahavamsa, Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE) Sophagasenuswas an IndianMauryanruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek sources, and named S ubhagsena or Subhashsena inPrakrit. His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes, and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descending(prenominal) of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson ofAshoka, orKunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of theHindu Kush, possibly inGandhara. Antiochos III, theSeleucidking, after having made peace withEuthydemusinBactria, went to India in 206 BC nd is said to have regenerate his friendship with the Indian king there He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him. Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a time of weaker kings. Brhadrata, the last ruler of theMauryan dynasty, held ter ritories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperorAshoka, although he still upheld the Buddhist faith. Sunga coup (185 BCE) Brihadratawas assassinated in 185 BCE during a military parade, by the commander-in-chief of his guard, thebrahmangeneralPusyamitra Sunga, who then took over the throne and established theSunga dynasty.Buddhist records such as theAsokavadanawrite that the assassination of Brhadrata and the rise of the Sunga empire led to a wave of persecution forBuddhists,and a resurgence ofHinduism. According toSir John Marshall,Pusyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Sunga kings seem to have been more puntive of Buddhism. Other historians, such asEtienne Lamotte andRomila Thapar, among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favor of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated. Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE) Th e fall of the Mauryas left theKhyber Passunguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed.TheGreco-Bactrianking,Demetrius, capitalized on the break-up, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and Pakistan around 180 BC, forming theIndo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kingsMenanderbecame a famous figure of Buddhism, he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city ofSialkot. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence points that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ.Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as theSungas,Satavahanas, andKalingasare unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamedIndo-Scythians, brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region ofMathura, and Gujarat. Reasons The decline of the Maurya Dynasty was rather rapid after the death of Ashoka/Asoka. One obvious reason for it was the succession of weak kings. Another immediate cause was the partition of the Empire into two. Had not the partition taken place, the Greek invasions could have been held back giving a chance to the Mauryas to re-establish some degree of their previous power. Regarding the decline much has been written. Haraprasad Sastri contends that the revolt by Pushyamitra was the result of brahminical reaction against the pro-Buddhist policies of Ashoka and pro-Jaina policies of his successors.Basing themselves on this thesis, some maintain the view that brahminical reaction was responsible for the decline because of the following reasons. 1. Prohibition of the slaughter of animals displeased the Brahmins as animal sacrifices were esteemed by them. 2. The book Divyavadana refers to the persecution of Bud dhists by Pushyamitra Sunga. 3. Asokas claim that he exposed the Budheveas (brahmins) as false gods shows that Ashoka was not well disposed towards Brahmins. 4. The capture of power by Pushyamitra Sunga shows the triumph of Brahmins 5. All of these four points can be easily refuted. 6. Asokas compassion towards animals was not an overnight decision. Repulsion of animal sacrifices grew over a long period of time. Even Brahmins gave it up. 7.The book Divyavadana cannot be relied upon since it was during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga that the Sanchi and Barhut stupas were completed. The printing of the persecution of Buddhism was probably created by Menanders invasion, since he was a Buddhist. 8. The word budheva is misinterpreted because this word is to be taken in the context of some other phrase. Viewed like this, the word has nothing to do with brahminism. 9. The victory of Pushyamitra Sunga clearly shows that the last of the Mauryas was an incompetent ruler since he was overthrow n in the very presence of his army, and this had nothing to do with brahminical reaction against Asokas patronage of Buddhism.Moreover, the very fact that a Brahmin was the commander in chief of the Mauryan ruler proves that the Mauryas and the Brahmins were on good terms. After all, the distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism in India was purely sectarian and never more than the difference between saivism and vaishnavism. The exclusiveness of religious doctrines is a Semitic conception, which was unknown to India for a long time. Buddha himself was looked upon in his lifetime and afterwards as a Hindu saint and avatar and his followers were but another sect in the great Aryan tradition. Ashoka was a Buddhist in the same way as Harsha was a Budhist, or Kumarapala was a Jain.But in the view of the people of the day he was a Hindu monarch following one of the recognized sects. His own inscriptions bear ample withness to the fact. While his doctrines follow the middle path, his gift s are to the brahmibns, sramansa (Buddhist priests) and others equally. His own name of adoption is Devanam Priya, the beloved of the gods. Which gods? sure as shooting the gods of the Aryan religion. Buddhism had no gods of its own. The idea that Ashoka was a kind of Buddhist Constantine declearing himself against paganism is a complete misreading of India conditions. Asoka was a kind or Buddhist Constantine declearing himself against paganism is a complete misreading of India conditions.Asoka was essentially a Hindu, as indeed was the founder of the sect to which he belonged. Raychaudhury too rebuts the assembly lines of Sastri. The empire had shrunk considerably and there was no revolution. Killing the Mauryan King while he was reviewing the army points to a palace coup detat not a revolution. The organization were ready to accept any one who could promise a more efficient organization. Also if Pushyamitra was really a representative of brahminical reaction he neighbouting kin gs would have definitely given him assistance. The argument that the empire became effete because of Asokan policies is also very thin. All the evidence suggests that Asoka was a stern monarch although his reign witnessed only a single campaign.He was subtle enough in retaining Kalinga although he expressed his remorse. Well he was wordly-wise to enslave and-and-half lakh sudras of Kalinga and bring them to the Magadha region to cut forests and cultivate land. More than this his tours of the empire were not only meant for the sake of piety but also for keeping an eye on the centrifugal tendencies of the empire. Which addressing the tribal people Asoka expressed his willingness to for given. More draconian was Ashokas heart to the forest tribes who were warned of the power which he possessed. This view of Raychoudhury on the pacifism of the State cannot be substantiated. Apart from these two major writers there is a third view as expressed by kosambi.He based his arguments that unn ecessary measures were taken up to increase tax and the punch-marked coins of the period show evidence of debasement. This contention too cannot be up held. It is quite possible that debased coins began to circulate during the period of the later Mauryas. On the other hand the debasement may also indicate that there was an increased demand for silver in relation to goods leading to the silver content of the coins being reduced. More important point is the fact that the material remains of the post-Asokan era do not suggest any pressure on the economy. Instead the economy prospered as shown by archaeological evidence at Hastinapura and Sisupalqarh. The reign of Asoka was an asset to the economy.The unification of the country under single efficient administration the organization and increase in communications meant the development of trade as well as an opening of many new commercial interest. In the post Asokan period surplus wealth was used by the rising commercial classes to deco rate religious buildings. The sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi and the Deccan caves was the contribution of this new bourgeoisie. Still another view regarding of the decline of Mauryas was that the coup of Pushyamitra was a peoples revolt against Mauryans oppression and a rejection of the Maurya adoption of foreign ideas, as far interest in Mauryan Art. This argument is based on the view that Sunga art (Sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi) is more earthy and in the folk tradition that Maruyan art. This is more stretching the argument too far.The character of Sunga art changed because it served a different purpose and its donors belonged to different social classes. Also, Sunga art conformed more to the folk traditions because Buddhism itself had incorporated large elements of popular cults and because the donors of this art, many of whom may have been artisans, were culturally more in the mainstream of folk tradition. One more reasoning to support the popular revolt theory is based on Asok as ban on the samajas. Asoka did ban festive meetings and discouraged eating of meat. These too might have entagonised the population but it is doubtful whether these prohibitions were strictly enforced.The above argument (peoples revolt) also means that Asokas policy was continued by his successors also, an assumption not confirmed by historical data. Further more, it is unlikely that there was sufficient national consciousness among the varied people of the Mauryan empire. It is also argued by these theorists that Asokan policy in all its details was continued by the later Mauryas, which is not a historical fact. Still another argument that is advanced in favour of the idea of revolt against the Mauryas is that the land tax under the Mauryas was one-quarter, which was very burden some to the cultivator. But historical evidence shows something else. The land tax varied from region to region according to the fertility of the demesne and the availability of water.The figure of one q uarter stated by Magasthenes probably referred only to the fertile and well-watered regions around Pataliputra. Thus the decline of the Mauryan empire cannot be satisfactorily explained by referring to Military inactivity, Brahmin resentment, popular uprising or economic pressure. The causes of the decline were more fundamental. The organization of administration and the concept of the State were such that they could be sustained by only by kings of considerably personal ability. After the death of Asoka there was definitely a weakening at the center specially after the division of the empire, which inevitably led to the breaking of provinces from the Mauryan rule.Also, it should be borne in mind that all the officials owed their loyalty to the king and not to the State. This meant that a change of king could result in change of officials leading to the demoralization of the officers. Mauryas had no system of ensuring the continuation of well-planned bureaucracy. The next important weakness of the Mauryan Empire was its extreme centralization and the practical(prenominal) monopoly of all powers by the king. There was a total absence of any advisory institution representing public opinion. That is why the Mauryas depended greatly on the espionage system. Added to this lack of representative institutions there was no distinction between the executive and the judiciary of the government.An incapable king may use the officers either for purposes of oppression or fail to use it for good purpose. And as the successors of Asoka happened to be weak, the empire inevitably declined. Added to these two factors, there is no conception of national unity of political consciousness. It is clear from the fact that even the oppositeness against the greeks as the hated miecchas was not an organized one. The only resistance was that of the local rulers who were afraid of losing their newly acquired territory. It is significant that when Porus was fighting Alexander, or when S ubhagasena was paying shelter to Antiochus, they were doing so as isolated rulers in the northwest of India.They had no support from Pataliputra, nor are they even mentioned in any Indian sources as offering resistance to the hated Yavanas. Even the heroic Porus, who, enemy though he was, won the admiration of the Greeks, is left unrecorded in Indian sources. Another associated point of great importance is the fact that the Mauryan Empire which was highly centralized and autocratic was the first and last one of its kind. If the Mauryan Empire did not survive for long, it could be because of the failure of the successors of Asoka to hold on to the principles that could make success of such an empire. Further, the Mauryan empire and the philosophy of the empire was not in tune with the spirit of the time because Aryanism and brahminism was very much there.According to the Brahmin or Aryan philosophy, the king was only an upholder of dharma, but never the crucial or architecture facto r influencing the whole of life. In other words, the sentiment of the people towards the political factor, that is the State was never established in India. Such being the reality, when the successors of Asoka failed to make use of the institution and the thinking that was needed to make a success of a centralized political authority. The Mauryan Empire declined without anyones regret. Other factors of importance that contributed to the decline and lack of national unity were the ownership of land and dissimilitude of economic levels. Land could frequently change hands.Fertility wise the region of the Ganges was more prosperous than northern Deccan. Mauryan administration was not fully tuned to meet the existing disparities in economic activity. Had the southern region been more developed, the empire could have witnessed economic homogeneity. Also the people of the sub-continent were not of uniform cultural level. The sophisticated cities and the trade centers were a great contrast to the isolated village communities. All these differences naturally led to the economic and political structures being different from region to region. It is also a fact that even the languages spoken were varied. The history of a